fW  READING  ROOM  CfBLY 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 

MUSIC 
UBRARV 

Gift  of 
Francis  L.  Peycke 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

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THE 

AMERICAN  HISTORY 

AND 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

MUSIC 

W.  L.  HUBBARD 

EDITOR  IN  CHIEF 


ARTHUR  FOOTE 
GEO.  W.  ANDREWS         EDWARD  DICKINSON 

Associate  Editors 


Special  Contributors 

G.  W.  CHADWICK  FREDERICK  STARR 

FRANK  DAMROSCH  H.  E.  KREHBIEL 

FREDERICK  STOCK     EMIL  LIEBLING 

W.  J.  HENDERSON 


Irving  Squire 

Toledo 

New  York  Chicago 


THE  AMERICAN  HISTORY  AND  ENCYCLOPEDIA 
OF  MUSIC 


Chicago 


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THE  AMERICAN  HISTORY  AND  ENCYCLOPEDIA 
OF  MUSIC 


OPERAS 


WITH 

INTRODUCTION 

BT 

H.  E.  KREHBIEL 


W-    L.    HUBBARD 

EDITOR 


VOLUME      I 


IRVING   SQUIRE 

Toledo 
New  York  Chicago 


Copyright  1908  by 

IRVING   SQUIRE 

Entered  Stationers'  Hall 
LONDON 


Music 


ML 


OPERAS 

A 

Vol.  Page. 

Adrienne  Lecouvreur II  305 

L'Africaine I  299 

Aida I  335 

L'Amico  Fritz II  211 

Ariana    et    Barbe-Bleue II  319 

B 

Ballo  in  Maschera,  II I  275 

Barber  of  Seville,   The I  83 

Barbiere  di   Siviglia,   II I  83 

Barbier  von  Bagdad,  Der I  267 

Barenhauter,  Der II  255 

Bat,  The II  9 

Beggar's  Opera,  The I  41 

Beggar  Student,  The II  137 

Belle  Helene,  La I  295 

Bells  of  Corneville,  The II  67 

Benvenuto  Cellini I  173 

Billee  Taylor II  105 

Black    Huzzar,    The II  183 

Boccaccio II  91 

Boheme,  La II  239 

Bohemian  Girl,  The I  207 


1392167 


OPERAS 

C  Vol.  Page. 

Carmen II  17 

Cavalleria  Rusticana .  II  203 

Clandestine  Marriage,  The I  71 

Contes  d'  Hoffmann,  Les II  121 

Crispino I  247 

Czar  and  the  Carpenter,  The I  179 

Czar  und  Zimmermann I  179 

D 

Dame  Blanche,  La I  101 

Daughter  of  the  Regiment,  The I  183 

Demon,  The II  13 

Demonio,   II II  13 

Deux  Joumees,  Les I  75 

Don  Giovanni I  63 

Don  Juan I  63 

Don  Pasquale I  203 

E 

L'Elisir  d' Amour I  137 

Erminie II  179 

Ernani I  211 

Eugen  Onegin II  71 

Euryanthe I  97 

F 

Falka .., II  159 

Falstaff II  217 

Fatinitza II  29 

Faust I  279 

Favorita,  La I  187 

Fedora II  247 

Feuersnot II  299 

Fidelio I  79 

Fille  de  Madame  Angot,  La I  339 

Fledermaus,    Die II  9 

Fille  du   Regiment,  La     .......  I  183 


INDEX 

Vol.  Page. 

Fliegende  Hollander,  Der I  199 

Florodora II  261 

Flying  Dutchman,  The I  199 

Fra  Diavolo I  117 

Freischiitz,   Der I  87 

Friend  Fritz II  211 

G 

Gioconda,   La II  33 

Girofle-Girofla II  5 

Gotterdammerung II  59 

Golden    Cross,    The II  25 

Grande  Duchesse  de  Gerolstein,  La    ...      .  I  313 

Guillaume  Tell I  113 

H 

Hansel  und   Gretel II  231 

Hans  Heiling I  141 

Helene H  309 

Herodiade II  131 

Huguenots,   The I  165 

I 

lolanthe II  151 

Iphigenie  en  Aulide I  51 

Iphigenie  en  Tauride I  55 

J 

Jongleur  de  Notre  Dame,   Le II  293 

Juive,  La I  157 

L 

Lakme II  155 

Lily  of  Killarney,   The     .......  I  287 

Linda   di   Chamouni I  191 

Lohengrin I  241 

Louise II  269 

Lucia  di  Lammermoor I  161 


OPERAS 

Vol.  Page. 

Lucrczia  Borgia I  149 

Lurline I  283 

M 

Madam  Butterfly II  315 

Magic  Flute,  The I  67 

Manon II  167 

Manon  Lescaut #11  223 

Manru II  279 

Maritana I  225 

Marriage  of  Figaro,  The I  59 

Marriage  of  Jeannette,  The I  259 

Martha I  229 

Masaniello I  109 

Mascot,  The II  109 

Masked  Ball,  The I  275 

Matrimonio   Segreto,   II I  71 

Medici,   I II  227 

Mefistofele    . I  321 

Meistersinger  von   Nurnberg,   Die     ....  I  325 

Merry  War,  The II  129 

Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  The I  233 

Mignon I  309 

Mikado,   The II  175 

N 

Nachtlager  von  Granada,  Das I  145 

Navarraise,    La II  235 

Nanon II  75 

Nero 11  95 

Noces  de  Jeannette,  Les I  259 

Norma I  133 

Nozze  di  Figaro,  Le I  59 

O 

Oberon    .....     r., I  105 

Olivette II  117 


INDEX 

Vol.  Page. 

Orphee  aux   Enfers I  271 

Orpheus I  47 

Otello II  187 

P 

PagHacci,   I II  213 

Parsifal         II  141 

Patience II  125 

Pelleas  et  Melisande II  283 

Pinafore II  87 

Pirates   of    Penzance,    The II  101 

Postilion  of  Longjumeau,  The I  169 

Prophete,  Le I  237 

Puritani,  I I  153 

Q 

Queen  of  Sheba,  The .II  21 

Queen's  Lace  Handkerchief,   The     .      .      .      .II  113 

R 

Reve,  Le II  207 

Rheingold,  Das II  41 

Ring  des  Nibelungen,   Der II  37 

Rienzi I  195 

Rigoletto I  251 

Robert  le  Diable I  129 

Robin  Hood II  199 

Roi  d'Ys,  Le II  191 

Romeo  and  Juliet I  317 

S 

Salome II  311 

Samson  and  Delilah II  83 

Semiramide         I  93 

Shamus  O'Brien II  243 

Siegfried II  53 

Sigurd II  163 

Sonnambula,  La      ........     .  I  121 


OPERAS 

Vol.  Page. 

Sorcerer,  The    ..........  II  79 

Stradella I  215 

Sultan  of  Sulu,  The II  287 

T 

Taming  of  the  Shrew,  The II  1 

Tannhauser I  217 

Tosca,  La II  265 

Traviata,  La I  263 

Tristan  und  Isolde I  303 

Trovatore,   II I  255 

Troyens  a  Carthage,  Les I  291 

Trumpeter  of  Sakkingen,  The II  171 

V 

Valkyrie,   The II  47 

Veronique II  251 

W 

Walktire,  Die    . II  47 

William  Tell I  113 

Y 

Yeomen  of  the  Guard,  The II  195 

Z 

Zampa I  125 

Zauberflote,  Die      r I  67 

Zaza II  275 


OPERA,  VOL.  1 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 

The  Grand  Opera  House,  Paris (frontispiece) 

Albert  Raymond  Alvarez 22  d 

Madame  Schumann-Heink 240 

Enrico  Caruso 250 

Madame  Melba 278 

Jean  DeReszke '502 

Anton  Van  Rooy 324 


OPERA  COMPOSERS  AND  WORKS 


Adam,  Adolph  Charles 

The  Postilion  of  Longjumeau       .     .     . 

Audran,  Edmund 

Olivette 

Vol. 
...      I 

.     .     .     II 

Page. 
169 

117 

The  Mascot 

.     .     .     II 

109 

Auber,  Daniel  F.  E.  (Jacques) 

Fra  Diavolo 

117 

Masaniello        

109 

Balfe,  Michael  William 

Bohemian  Girl 

207 

Berlioz,  Hector 

Benvenuto  Cellini 

173 

Les  Troyens  a  Carthage 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  van 

Fidelio 

291 
79 

Brull,  Ignaz 

The  Golden  Cross 

.     .     .     II 

25 

Bruneau,  A. 

Le  Reve 

.     .     .     II 

207 

Bellini,  Vincenzo 

Norma . 

133 

La  Sonnambula 

121 

I   Puritani 

153 

Benedict,  Sir  Julius 

The  Lily  of  Killarney 

287 

Bizet,  Georges 

Carmen        

...    II 

17 

OPERAS 

Boieldieu,  Francois  Adrien  Vol  Page. 

La  Dame  Blanche I  101 

Boito,  Arrigo 

Mefistofele I  321 

Cherubini,  Luigi 

Les  Deux  Joumees I  75 

Charpentier,  Gustav 

Louise n         269 

Chassaigne,  Francis 

Falka H  159 

Cilea,  Francois 

Adrienne   Lecouvreur II  30S 

Cimarosa,  Domenico 

II  Matrimonio  Segreto I  71 

Cornelius,  Peter 

Der  Barbier  von  Bagdad I  267 

Debussy,  Claude 

Pelleas  et  Melisande II  283 

De  Koven,  Reginald 

Robin  Hood II  199 

Delibes,  Leo 

Lakme II  155 

Donizetti,  Gaetano 

La  Fille  du  Regiment I  183 

La  Favorita I  187 

Don  Pasquale I  203 

Lucia  di  Lammermoor I  161 

L'Elisir  d'Amour I  137 

Lucrezia  Borgia I  149 

Linda  di  Chamouni I  191 

Dukas,  Paul 

Ariana  et  Barbe-Bleue II  319 

Flotow,  Friedrich  von 

Martha I  229 

Stradella I  215 

Genee,  Richard 

Nanon II  75 

Giordano,  Umberto 

Fedora II  247 


INDEX 

Gluck,  Christoph  Willibald  Vol.  Page. 

Orpheus I            47 

Iphigenie  en  Aulide I            51 

Iphigenie  en  Tauride I            55 

Goetz,  Hermann 

The  Taming  of  the  Shrew II  1 

Groldmark,  Karl 

The  Queen  of  Sheba II  21 

Gounod,  Charles  Francois 

Faust I         279 

Romeo  and  Juliet I  317 

Halevy,  Jacques 

La  Juive I  157 

Herold,  Louis  Joseph  Ferdinand 

Zampa I  125 

Humperdinck,  Engelbert 

Hansel  und  Gretel II  231 

Jakobowski,  E. 

Erminie II  179 

Kreutzer,  Konradin 

Das  Nachtlager  von  Granada I  145 

Lalo,  Edouard 

Le  Roi  d'Ys II  191 

Lecocq,  Alexandre  Charles 

Girofle-Girofla II  5 

La  Fille  de  Madame  Angot I  339 

Leoncavallo,  Ruggiero 

Zaza II  275 

I  PagHacci II  213 

I  Medici II  227 

Lortzing,  Gustav  Albert 

Czar  und  Zimmermann I  179 

Marschner,  Heinrich 

Hans  Heiling I  141 

Mascagni,  Pietro 

Cavalleria  Rusticana II  203 

L'Amico  Fritz II  211 

Masse,  Victor 

Les  Noces  de  Jeannette I  259 


OPERAS 

Massenet,  Jules  Vol.  Page. 

Manon H  j^Z 

Herodiade II  131 

La  Navarraise II  235 

Le  Jongleur  de  Notre  Dame II  293 

Messager,  Andre 

Veronique U  251 

Meyerbeer,  Giacomo 

The  Hug^uenots I  J55 

Robert  le  Diable I  129 

Le  Prophete I  237 

L'Africaine I  299 

Millocker,  Carl 

The  Beggar  Student U  137 

The  Black  Huzzar jj  jgj 

Mozart,  Wolfgang  Amadeus 

Die  Zauberflote j  g7 

Don  Giovanni j  g3 

Le  Nozze  de  Figaro I  59 

Nessler,  Victor  E. 

The  Trumpeter  of  Sakkingen II  171 

Nicolai,  Otto 

The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor I  233 

Offenbach,  Jacques 

La  Grande  Duchesse  de  Gerolstein I  313 

Orphee  aux  Enfers I  271 

Les  Contes  d'Hoffmann II  12I 

La  Belle  Helene I  295 

Paderewski,  Ignace  Jan 

Manru H  279 

Planquette,  Robert 

The  Bells  of  Corneville II  57 

Pepusch,  Johann  C. 

The  Beggar's  Opera I  41 

Ponchielli,  Amilcare 

La  Gioconda U  53 

Puccini,  Giacomo 

La  Boheme U  239 

Manon  Lescaut H  223 

Madam  Butterfly H  3J5 

La  Tosca H  265 


INDEX 


Reyer,  Ernest 

Sigurd 

Ricci,  Luigi  and  Federico 

Crispino 

Rossini,  Gioachino 

II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia     . 

Semiramide 

Guillaume  Tell 

Rubinstein,  Anton 

II  Demonio 

Nero 

Saint-Saens,  Camilla 

Samson  and  Delilah  .... 

Helena 

Solomon,  Edward 

Billee  Taylor 

Strauss,  Johann 

The  Merry  War 

Die  Fledermaus 

The  Queen's  Lace  Handkerchief 

Strauss,  Richard 

Salome 

Feuersnot    

Sullivan,  Sir  Arthur 

Pinafore       

The  Mikado 

Patience 

The  Pirates  of  Penzance     . 

lolanthe 

The  Sorcerer 

Yeomen  of  the  Guard,  The  . 
Suppe,  Franz  von 

Boccaccio 

Fatinitza 

Stuart,  Leslie 

Florodora    

Stanford,  Charles  V. 

Shamus  O'Brien 

Thomas,  Ambroise 

Mignon 


Vol. 
I] 


Page. 
163 

247 

83 
93 

113 

13 
95 

83 
309 

105 

129 

9 

113 

311 
299 

87 
175 
125 
101 
151 

79 
195 

91 
29 

261 

243 

309 


OPERAS 


Tschaikowski,  Peter  Hitch  Vol.  Page. 

Eugen  Onegin II  71 

Verdi,  Guiseppe 

Ernani I  211 

Rigoletto I  251 

II  Trovatore I  255 

La  Traviata I  263 

II  Ballo  in  Maschera I  275 

Aida I  335 

Otello n  187 

Falstaff        11  217 

Wagner,  Richard 

Rienzi I  195 

Der  Fliegende  Hollander I  199 

Tannhauser I  217 

Lohengrin         I  241 

Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen II  37 

Das   Rheingold 11  41 

Die  Walkure II  47 

Siegfried II  53 

Gotterdammerung II  59 

Tristan  und  Isolde I  303 

Die  Meistersinger  von  Niirnberg       .     .     .     .     .1  325 

Parsifal        II  141 

Wagner,  Siegfried 

Der  Barenhauter II  255 

Walthall,  Alfred  G. 

The  Sultan  of  Sulu II  287 

Wallace,  William  Vincent 

Maritana I  225 

Lurline I  283 

Weber,  Carl  Maria  von 

Der  Freischtitz I  87 

Oberon I  105 

Euryanthe - I  97 


OPERA  AND  LYRIC  DRAMA 

H.  E.  Krehbiel. 

It  is  sometimes,  indeed,  frequently,  advisable  to  study 
history  backward,  permitting  the  more  intimate  knowledge 
which  we  have  of  things  in  their  present  and  familiar  mani- 
festations to  throw  light  on  the  phases  which  those  things 
presented  long  ago.  Progress  is  not  in  a  direct  line,  but  in 
a  spiral  direction.  The  movement  is  onward,  but  ever  and 
anon  a  point  is  reached  which  seems  to  make  the  conclusion 
of  a  cycle,  and  to  be  nearer  the  point  of  departure  than  any 
other  point  in  the  course.  The  principle  is  illustrated  in  the 
history  of  that  mixed  art  form  popularly  called  opera,  and 
it  is  from  this  point  that  this  historical  and  analytical  study 
proceeds.  Essentially,  despite  the  immeasurably  greater 
potency  of  expression  which  all  its  component  elements  have 
attained,  it  approaches  the  art  form  with  which  musical 
historians  generally  begin  its  story,  more  closely  than  it  does 
the  opera  of  only  a  century  ago;  i.  e.,  the  phase  which  the 
art  form  had  reached  after  two  centuries  of  development. 
This  is  true  even  in  the  simple  matter  of  terminology.  Since 
Wagner,  composers  have  been  averse  to  the  term  which  suf- 
ficed them  for  two  hundred  years  and  have  tried  to  discover 
one  which  should  more  specifically  describe  the  mixed  art 
form  of  music  and  drama.  The  term  which  Wagner  in- 
vented,   "  Musikdrama,"   is   nothing   more   nor   less   than   a 


Z  OPERAS 

German  form  of  the  old  Italian  "  Dramma  per  la  musica," 
while  "  opera "  is  but  a  convenient  but  vague  and  ill-con- 
structed abbreviation  of  "  opera  in  musica,"  a  term  w^hich 
came  into  use  after  the  lyric  drama  had  become  so  com- 
pletely artificialized  that  its  original  aim  and  its  original 
methods  have  been  all  but  forgotten.  A  return  to  first  prin- 
ciples has  brought  with  it  a  return  to  designations  which 
are  more  lucid  and  accurate  than  "  opera  "  could  ever  be, 
except  in  an  arbitrary  and  conventional  sense.  Caccini's 
"  Eurydice,"  one  of  two  simultaneous  settings  of  the  work 
which  the  majority  of  historians  have  agreed  to  call  the 
first  opera  and  which,  with  its  companion  by  Peri,  was  pub- 
lished in  Florence  A.  D.  1600,  had  only  this  title  (in 
Italian):  "The  Eurydice;  composed  in  music  in  represent- 
ative style  by  Giulio  Caccini,  called  the  Roman."  "  Orfeo," 
by  Monteverde,  produced  in  Mantua  in  1607  and  published 
two  years  later,  was  called  on  the  title  page,  "A  Fable  in 
Music"  (or  tale,  or  story).  Later  composers  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  hit  upon  "  Drama  in  Music,"  "  Tragedy  in 
Music,"  "  Comedy  in  Music,"  and  finally  "  Opera  in  Music  " 
(that  is,  work,  or  works),  of  which  the  term  "Opera," 
which  served  down  to  our  own  day,  was  an  abbreviation. 
The  general  term  was  now  qualified  by  an  adjective  indic- 
ative of  the  mood  and  manner  of  the  work,  such  as  "  Grand 
Opera,"  or  "  Comic  Opera,"  and  its  poetical  contents,  "  His- 
torical Opera,"  "  Romantic  Opera,"  and  the  like,  the  sig- 
nificance of  which  may  be  reserved  for  discussion  presently. 
Richard  Wagner  called  all  his  compositions  for  the  stage 
operas  down  to  "  Tristan  and  Isolde,"  which  he  designated 
on  the  title  page  as  an  "Action  in  Three  Acts  "  ("  Handlung 
in  drei  Aufzugen  ")  ;  his  tetralogy,  "  The  Ring  of  Nibelung," 
he  called  a  "Stage  Festival  Play"  ("  Buhnenfestspiel"), 
and  to  emphasize  its  solemn  character,  "  Parsifal  "  received 
the  ponderous  designation,  "A  Stage  Consecrating  Festival 
Play"  ("  Buhnenweihfestspiel ").  Of  all  his  later  works. 
he  spoke  collectively  as  "music-dramas,"  though  I  have 
preferred  to  translate  the  term,  with  defensible   (or  at  least 


OPERA  AND  LYRIC  DRAMA  3 

pardonable)  license,  as  "  Lyric  Dramas."  Verdi  called 
"Aida  "  an  "opera  in  four  acts"  ("  Opera  in  quattro  Atti"), 
but  his  "Otello"  he  designated  a  "  Lyric  Drama"  ("Dramma 
Lirico"),  and  "  Falstaff  "  a  "Lyric  Comedy"  ("  Commedia 
Lirica").  Massenet's  "  Navarraise  "  is  a  "Lyric  Episode  in 
two  Acts ;"  Puccini's  "  Madame  Butterfly,"  a  "Japanese  Trag- 
edy;" Cilea's  "Adriana  Lecouvreur,"  a  "Comedy  Drama," 
and  so  it  goes  on,  the  composers  finding,  when  they  can, 
titles  descriptive  of  the  dramatic  style  of  their  pieces,  but 
refusing  to  give  them  any  designation  beyond  the  titles 
indicative  of  their  dramatic  contents.  Thus,  we  have  a 
return  to  the  custom  which  prevailed  while  the  art  form 
was  in  its  very  beginnings  and  when  its  creators  were  filled 
with  a  solemn  notion  of  its  dignity  and  its  beauty. 

So  much  for  the  revolution  in  terms.  In  the  more  sig- 
nificant matter  of  purpose,  the  same  principle  holds  good. 
The  inventors  of  the  Italian  opera,  for  reasons  which  they 
thought  valid,  sought  to  bring  music  into  the  service  of  the 
drama,  and,  in  pursuit  of  this  plan,  they  strove  hard  for  the 
dramatic  expression  of  which  they  conceived  music  capable, 
not  at  all  caring  to  add  to  the  purely  artistic  beauty  of  music 
as  such.  In  the  progress  of  time,  musical  beauty  became  the 
dominant  idea  of  the  opera  —  the  idea  to  which  the  action 
(but  not  its  outward  dress),  was  made  slavishly  subservient. 
Then  came  a  revulsion  from  the  conventionalism  of  this 
phase  and  gradually  a  return  to  the  original  purpose,  which 
held  the  play  to  be  "  the  thing "  and  music  one  of  the 
agencies  for  its  attainment.  Meanwhile,  of  course,  the  pos- 
sibilities of  musical  expression  had  been  marvelously  in- 
creased by  the  influence  of  romantic  feeling,  which  developed 
harmony,  and  the  growth  in  the  instrumental  art;  and,  by 
the  time  that  composers  were  willing  to  make  their  music  a 
helpful  agency  in  the  expression  of  the  drama,  they  had 
been  equipped  with  an  apparatus  a  thousandfold  more  eflSca- 
cious  than  that  at  the  command  of  their  precursors  of  two 
and  a  half  centuries  before.  To  make  possible  the  direct 
pursuit  of  the  dramatic  ideal,  which  had  originally  been  the 


4  OPERAS 

aim  of  opera  writers,  they  now  had  to  shuffle  off  some  of 
the  formularies  which  had  grown  up  in  the  service  of 
musical  beauty  and  stood  in  the  way  of  the  truthful  dramatic 
expression,  and  thus  we  reach  the  age  of  reform,  of  which 
Gluck  and  Wagner  are  the  shining  lights.  These  men  — 
regenerators  of  the  old  quite  as  much  as  they  were  reformers 
of  contemporaneous  art  —  opened  the  way  to  the  absolute 
freedom  exercised  by  the  composers  of  today,  and  give  at 
least  some  measure  of  justification  to  the  methods  of  the 
latest  revolutionary,  Richard  Strauss,  in  whose  "  Salome," 
music  surrenders  all  its  functions  as  an  independent  art,  and 
becomes  a  mere  adjunct  of  the  drama;  a  part  of  the  scene, 
an  emotional  voice  in  the  service  of  the  ugly  as  well  as  of 
the  beautiful,  realistic  and  delineative. 

As  has  been  intimated,  it  is  customary  for  writers  to 
begin  the  history  of  opera  with  a  dramatic  and  musical  work 
produced  in  1600.  The  "  Eurydice  "  referred  to  is  a  con- 
venient mile-post  simply  because  it  stands  forth  brightly 
illuminated  by  the  sun  of  the  renaissance  of  learning.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  opera  is  as  old  as  the  drama  and,  the 
world  over,  its  elements  are  found  in  harmonious  union. 
The  primitive  form  of  stage  play  which  may  be  witnessed  in 
China,  Siam,  and  other  countries,  or  even  in  the  religious 
functions  of  our  own  American  Indians,  shows  that  union  of 
poetry,  music  and  action  whose  development  into  the  tragedy 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  was  the  inspiration  of  the  inventors 
whose  achievements  fill  the  first  chapter  of  specific  opera 
history.  Music  was  once  an  integral  element  of  all  speech 
and  remained  an  integral  element  of  all  solemn  and  beau- 
tiful speech  when  the  Athenian  tragedians  created  the  art 
works  which  are  still  the  subjects  of  enthusiastic  literary 
study.  In  the  classical  drama  the  lines  were  chanted  and  the 
individual  actors  had  the  co-operation  of  instruments  and  of 
a  chorus  which  sang  and  danced  with  solemn  and  lovely 
gravity  to  heighten  the  expressiveness  of  word  and  dramatic 
situation.  This  fact  seemed  a  matter  of  large  moment  in 
the  minds  of  a  coterie  of  scholars  who,  toward  the  close  of 


OPERA  AND  LYRIC  DRAMA        5 

the  Sixteenth  Century,  were  in  the  habit  of  meeting  for 
learned  discussion  in  the  house  of  one  Giovanni  Bardi,  the 
Count  Vernio,  in  Florence.  These  men  were,  for  the  greater 
part,  merely  amateurs  in  music;  only  two  of  them  were 
professional  musicians,  Jacopo  Peri  and  Giulio  Caccini. 
Among  the  others  was  Vincenzo  Galileo,  father  of  the  great 
astronomer,  and  Ottavio  Rinuccini,  a  poet.  These  men  had 
convinced  themselves  by  study  that  the  classic  drama  had 
been  delivered  in  a  kind  of  exalted  declamation,  approaching 
song.  There  was  nothing  like  it  in  the  vocal  music  of  their 
time;  folk-song,  it  would  seem,  was  condemned  by  them  as 
much  as  it  was  by  the  composers  of  their  day,  and  artistic 
music  was  fettered  by  the  forms  which  the  church  musicians 
had  given  it.  For  a  whole  century,  at  least,  music  had  been 
used  in  the  drama,  but  it  was  all  polyphonic;  that  is,  many- 
voiced  music.  No  actor  sang  alone;  even  if  he  were  deliv- 
ering a  soliloquy  alone  upon  the  stage,  he  sang  only  one  part 
of  a  many-voiced  composition  in  the  style  of  a  madrigal; 
the  other  voices,  which  supplied  the  harmony,  being  sung  by 
companions  who  were  hidden  behind  the  scenes.  A  solo 
without  harmony,  or  with  harmonic  support  from  an  instru- 
ment or  instruments  playing  in  chords,  was  unknown.  Instru- 
mental music  was  in  its  infancy  and  its  forms  were  vocal 
and  polyphonic.  Song  with  instrumental  accompaniment 
was  but  an  assignment  of  one  part  to  a  singer  while  the 
other  parts  were  played  as  if  each  instrument  was  a  member 
of  a  vocal  choir.  Expressive  melody  was,  therefore,  out  of 
the  question,  and  an  expressive  melody  was  the  first  require- 
ment, if  the  drama  was  to  become  musical  throughout,  as 
the  classic  tragedy  was  conceived  to  have  been.  And  so 
these  Florentines  brushed  aside  the  art  as  it  had  been  devel- 
oped by  the  great  musicians  (Palestrina  and  the  rest),  and 
invented  a  new  manner  of  utterance,  which  they  called  (as 
we  have  seen  in  the  title  of  Caccini's  "Eurydice"),  the 
representative,  or,  perhaps  it  were  better  to  say,  the  expres- 
sive style.  The  actors  sang  alone  and  had  the  help  of 
instruments  which  were  played  behind  the  scenes,  the  first 


6  OPERAS 

operatic  orchestra  being,  like  Wagner's  at  Bayreuth,  out  of 
sight.  They  did  not  sing  set  tunes;  that  is,  formal  melo- 
dies, divided  into  periods  balancing  each  other  symmet- 
rically, but  they  created  a  kind  of  recitative,  as  it  is  called 
in  operatic  terminology.  They  observed  carefully  the  inflec- 
tions in  ordinary  conversation  which  spring  involuntarily 
from  an  emotional  stimulus  and  tried  to  reproduce  them  in 
the  musical  setting  of  the  poetry.  The  music  followed  the 
rhythmical  flow  of  the  words  with  great  exactness  and 
helped  to  make  them  impressive.  Like  the  Greeks,  they 
made  use  of  a  chorus,  and,  believing  that  the  choral  por- 
tions of  the  classic  drama  were  more  highly  and  artificially 
developed  than  the  dialogue  (as  indeed  they  were,  and,  I 
believe,  more  richly  accompanied  by  instruments),  they 
wrote  their  choruses  in  the  style  of  the  artistic  music  which 
they  had  cast  aside  in  the  other  portions  of  the  drama;  that 
is  to  say,  the  choral  odes  became  madrigals. 

A  pastoral  called  "  Dafne,"  for  which  Rinuccini  wrote 
the  text  and  Peri  the  music,  which,  it  is  to  be  supposed, 
embodied  the  new  ideas,  was  produced  privately  in  the  palace 
of  Jacopo  Corsi,  one  of  the  eager  Florentine  coterie,  in  1597. 
It  would,  perhaps,  be  called  the  first  opera,  had  it  had  a 
public  hearing  or  had  it  been  preserved.  Since  fate  forbade 
both  of  these  things,  that  honor  falls  to  **  Eurydice,"  which 
Peri  was  commissioned  to  write  three  years  later,  for  the 
festivities  attending  the  marriage  of  Henri  IV.  of  France 
and  Marie  di  Medici.  Caccini,  who  was  a  singer,  helped 
Peri  to  compose  the  music  and  at  the  performance  his  setting, 
as  well  as  that  of  Peri,  was  drawn  up.  Afterward,  both  men 
printed  their  scores,  if  they  can  be  so  called,  and  their  music 
is  available  for  study  and  even  for  reproduction,  having  been 
reprinted,  only  the  reproduction  of  the  instrumental  part 
would  be  accomplished  with  difficulty,  for,  though  the  har- 
mony is  indicated  by  a  figured  bass  (which  was  also  a  new 
invention),  there  is  no  indication  in  the  music  how  the 
instruments  were  employed.  The  noble  amateurs  and  their 
friends  acted  as  orchestra  and  played  the  harmony  —  it  may 


OPERA  AND  LYRIC  DRAMA  7 

be  assumed  in  a  manner  suggested  by  the  composers  —  on 
a  harpsichord,  chitarrone,  lira  grande,  theorbo  or  large  lute, 
and  three  flutes.  Naturally,  other  cities  became  emulous  of 
Florence,  and  before  the  end  of  the  Seventeenth  CentUry, 
Mantua,  Rome,  Bologna  and  Venice  entered  the  lists,  each 
contributing  somewhat  to  the  advancement  of  the  new  art 
form.  At  first,  like  most  other  manifestations  of  the  beau- 
tiful in  art,  it  remained  in  the  service  of  the  nobility  and 
aristocracy;  but  Rome  saw  the  beginning  of  its  populari- 
zation at  the  carnival  of  1606,  when,  like  another  Thespis, 
a  mountebank  musician  fitted  up  a  little  play  with  music,  and 
helped  by  five  performers,  went  through  the  streets  playing 
it  upon  a  stage  mounted  on  a  cart.  Nothing  more  is  heard 
of  this  beginning,  however,  and  a  quarter  of  a  century  elapsed 
before  there  was  an  operatic  performance  in  the  house  of  a 
Roman  nobleman.  Venice  was  the  first  city  to  devote  a 
theater  to  operatic  representations.  It  was  the  Teatro  di  San 
Cassiano,  which  opened  its  doors  to  the  public  in  1637,  and 
before  the  century  came  to  an  end  there  were  eleven  opera 
houses  in  Venice,  for  which  a  numerous  brood  of  composers 
were  kept  busy  writing.  One  of  these,  who  has  come  to  be 
called  Cavalli,  produced  no  less  than  thirty-four  operas  for 
Venice  alone,  and  his  fame  went  throughout  Europe.  Of 
his  immediate  successors,  Cesti,  Pallavicino,  Legrenzi,  Sar- 
torio,  Strozzi  and  a  few  others  were  the  most  popular.  But 
it  would  add  little  to  our  knowledge  of  the  growth  of  opera 
to  discuss  the  personal  history  of  the  men  or  the  character 
of  the  music  which  they  wrote.  The  progress  which  the 
best  of  them  marked  had  its  starting  point  in  the  operas  of 
Claudio  Monteverde  (1568-1643),  who  was  Cavalli's  teacher, 
who,  when  he  produced  his  "  Orfeo  "  in  1607,  had  already 
created  a  stir  by  the  innovations  which  he  had  introduced 
into  polyphonic  music  for  the  purpose  of  giving  it  greater 
emotional  expressiveness.  The  score  of  "  Orfeo  "  has  been 
preserved  and  republished  in  Germany  within  recent  times, 
but  there  is  nothing  in  it  comparable  with  a  short  mono- 
logue, the  lament  of  Ariadne  after  her  desertion  by  Theseus, 


8  OPERAS 

which  is  all  that  has  remained  of  the  later  opera,  "Arianna  " 
—  a  song  of  the  arioso  type,  which  for  truthfulness  and 
poignancy  of  expression  is  comparable  with  anything  that 
has  been  composed  by  the  great  masters  since.  Its  beginning 
is  "  Lasciatemi  movire,"  and  as  it  is  obtainable  in  the  best 
music  shops,  with  its  harmonies  written  out  from  the  old 
thorough  bass,  no  student  of  dramatic  song  should  fail  to 
study  it.  This  lamentation  marks  the  crystallization  of  the 
free  and  formless  monody,  as  it  was  called,  into  the  arioso, 
and,  while  in  itself  an  achievement  of  great  significance  and 
value,  it  is  a  mile-post  on  the  road  over  which  Monteverde's 
successors  traveled  with  great  rapidity  for  a  century  and  a 
half,  by  which  time  the  old  lyric  drama  had  degenerated  into 
a  soulless  art  form,  to  the  artificialities  and  sensuous  beauties 
of  which  all  the  high  purposes  of  its  inventors  had  been 
sacrificed.  When  arioso,  which  had  grown  out  of  the  repre- 
sentative style,  had  grown  into  the  artificial  formula  known 
as  the  aria,  the  tragedy  with  music  became  an  opera,  and 
the  opera  became  a  mere  concert  in  costume.  A  brief  account 
of  the  opera  as  it  existed  at  the  time  of  Handel  will  be  given 
presently,  but  first  it  must  be  stated  that  largely  under  the 
influence  of  Monteverde,  the  potency  of  the  instrumental 
element  in  it  had  been  developed  far  beyond  the  dreams  of 
Peri  and  Caccini.  In  place  of  their  band,  which  might  be 
replaced  today  with  a  small  pianoforte,  flutes  and  a  few 
guitars,  Monteverde  used  no  less  than  thirty-six  instruments, 
including  violins,  trombones,  trumpets  and  three  small  port- 
able organs.  For  these  instruments,  moreover,  he  wrote 
independent  movements,  and  he  used  them  in  groups  for 
dramatic  effect.  To  him  is  attributed  the  invention  of  the 
pizzicato  and  tremolo  on  the  violins  —  two  effects  that  every 
composer  has  employed  since. 

While  Italian  opera  was  still  in  its  infancy,  it  began  the 
invasion  of  the  other  European  countries.  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, France  and  England  at  first  adopted  it  bodily  and  then 
gradually  modified  it  to  suit  the  taste  of  their  people,  this 
being  an  inevitable  result  of  the  democratic  tendency  which 


OPERA  AND  LYRIC  DRAMA        9 

prevented  it  from  remaining  the  plaything  of  the  courts. 
Royalty  and  nobility  might  tolerate  it  in  its  original  tongue, 
but  when  it  came  to  be  presented  to  the  people  and  to  ask  their 
patronage,  the  vernacular  asserted  its  rights  in  each  of  the 
countries  mentioned.  In  all  of  them,  however,  must  be  pre- 
supposed a  period  like  that  which  prevailed  in  Italy  before 
the  Florentine  coterie  made  their  invention,  in  which  efforts 
were  made  to  adapt  the  artistic  forms  of  music  to  masques 
and  pantomimes.  In  Germany,  Heinrich  Schiitz  wrote 
music  (which  doubtless  approached  its  Italian  model),  for  a 
translation  of  Rinuccini's  "  Dafne,"  at  the  command  of  the 
Saxon  Elector,  Johann  George  II.,  in  1627.  Seventeen 
years  later,  Sigismund  Gottlieb  Staden  composed  a  pastoral 
called  "  Seelewig,"  which  was  thoroughly  German,  though 
it  leaned  heavily  on  Italian  models.  The  first  opera  house 
in  Germany  was  opened  in  Hamburg  in  1678,  forty  years 
after  Italy  saw  the  first  institution  of  the  kind.  The  operas 
were  heavy-footed  German  affairs,  made  clumsily  over  the 
Italian  last,  and  none  of  the  composers  made  a  mark  upon 
the  historic  page  until  the  arrival  of  Reinhard  Keiser  (1673- 
1739),  in  whose  orchestra  Handel  sat  and  whose  successes 
no  doubt  had  much  to  do  with  the  development  of  Handel's 
genius.  Cavalli,  who  had  previously  gone  to  Vienna  to  pro- 
duce some  of  his  operas,  went  to  Paris  in  1660.  The  French 
capital  had  been  familiar  with  Italian  works  and  Italian 
singers  for  fifteen  years,  but  then  the  national  spirit  (Chau- 
vinism, we  call  it  when  in  an  unamiable  mood),  had  already 
asserted  itself  so  vigorously  that  Cavalli  made  a  failure 
with  two  operas,  though  he  came  under  the  patronage  of 
Mazarin.  In  1671,  the  Academy  of  Music,  now  popularly 
spoken  of  as  the  Grand  Opera,  was  established  under  letters 
patent  obtained  from  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  this  institution, 
which  has  ever  since  held  the  eye  of  the  civilized  world,  the 
real  beginnings  of  French  opera  were  made,  though  it  did 
not  achieve  much  until  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Lully  (1633- 
1687),  an  Italian  who  had  been  taken  to  Paris  to  be  a 
scullion  in  the  kitchen  of  the  Montpensier.     He  became  a 


10  OPERAS 

power,  and  a  most  tyrannical  one,  indeed,  and  though  he 
helped  to  foster  the  ballets  which  won  the  chief  delight  of 
the  grand  monarch  and  his  court,  he  composed  twenty 
operas,  some  of  the  airs  of  which  may  still  be  studied  with 
profit  and  heard  with  pleasure,  and  fixed  the  form  of  the 
French  grand  opera,  which  recognized  then  and  still  recog- 
nizes the  keen  instincts  of  the  French  people  for  the  drama. 
Italian  influences  did  not  lose  their  hold  in  Paris,  however, 
and  when  Gluck  came,  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  to  write 
in  the  manner  that  might  have  been  expected  to  make  an 
irresistible  appeal  to  the  French  people,  he  had  to  fight 
his  bitter  battle  Math  Piccini.  In  England,  the  principles 
represented  by  the  Florentines  found  expression  in  a  setting 
of  a  masque  from  Ben  Jonson  in  1617,  by  Nicolo  Laniere,  an 
Italian  born  in  London;  but  the  fashion  of  setting  an  entire 
stage  play  to  music  was  not  established  by  Laniere's  experi- 
ment. Even  when  England's  most  powerful  and  original 
genius,  Henry  Purcell  (1658-1695)  came,  the  operatic  form 
still  lagged.  Purcell  was  a  pupil  of  Pelham  Humphries,  a 
pupil  of  Lully;  yet  Purcell,  with  unmistakable  dramatic 
instincts,  wrote  no  complete  opera,  but  only  incidental  dra- 
matic music  for  masques  and  plays,  though  some  of  these 
compositions  have  the  form,  dimensions  and  significance  of 
operatic  scenes.  Italian  opera  of  the  accepted  Italian  type 
came  into  dominant  vogue  with  Handel  in  1711. 

What  was  opera  like  at  the  close  of  the  period  which 
has  now  been  outlined?  I  can  only  give  a  few  significant 
hints  and  leave  the  filling  out  to  the  imagination  of  the 
reader,  or  the  completion  of  his  knowledge  by  further  study. 
In  Germany  and  England,  we  are  confronted  for  a  time 
with  an  anomaly  of  language.  The  purveyors  felt  that  the 
people  ought  to  understand  the  words  of  the  play,  but  they 
were  dependent  on  foreign  singers  and  foreign  composers 
to  a  great  extent,  and  they  knew  that  their  own  languages 
were  not  as  well  adapted  to  Italian  music  as  the  Italian.  So, 
for  a  space,  they  made  use  of  two  languages,  Italian  and  the 
vernacular.     Handel's  "Almira,"  written  for  Hamburg,  has 


OPERA  AND  LYRIC  DRAMA  11 

German  recitatives  for  the  dialogue,  and  Italian  arias.  For 
three  years  in  London,  Italian  and  English  were  mixed  in 
the  manner  amusingly  described  by  Addison: 

"  The  King  or  hero  of  the  play  generally  spoke  in 
Italian,  and  his  slaves  answered  him  in  English;  the  lover 
frequently  made  his  court  and  gained  the  heart  of  his  princess 
in  a  language  which  she  did  not  understand.  At  length  the 
audience  got  tired  of  understanding  half  the  opera  and  to  ease 
themselves  entirely  of  the  fatigue  of  thinking,  so  ordered  it 
that  the  whole  opera  was  performed  in  an  unknown  tongue." 
Addison  thought  that  the  grandchildren  of  his  generation 
would  wonder  at  the  conduct  on  the  part  of  their  forefathers, 
in  listening  to  plays  which  they  did  not  understand;  but  the 
English  and  American  people  do  the  same  thing  today. 

But  in  Italy  itself,  where  the  language  was  understood, 
the  opera  was  less  artificial.  At  the  outset  the  subjects  had 
been  classical;  very  naturally,  indeed,  the  record  starts  with 
the  story  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice.  Then  they  became 
antique — historical.  But  it  made  no  difference  whether  the 
hero  was  a  god,  a  demi-god,  an  ancient  monarch,  or  a  man 
of  war.  It  was  his  business  to  run  about  the  stage,  generally 
in  disguise,  and  sing  elaborate  tunes  in  an  unsexed  voice. 
A  hard  and  fast  formula  governed  the  construction  of 
operas  down  almost  to  the  Mozart  period,  the  period  from 
which  present,  popular  and  practical  knowledge  may  be  said 
to  date.  The  plot  had  to  be  classical;  there  had  to  be  six 
characters  and  six  only  (three  women  and  three  men)  ;  occa- 
sionally a  woman  might  take  a  man's  part,  but  many  of  the 
men  sang  with  women's  voices;  there  were  three  acts  and  in 
each  of  the  three  each  character  sang  an  air;  there  were  five 
varieties  of  airs,  but  each  kind  had  the  da  capo ;  that  is,  after 
it  had  been  finished  the  singer  returned  to  the  beginning  and 
sang  the  first  part  over  again,  this  time  with  such  embellish- 
ments as  he  or  she  could  invent.  The  various  kinds  of  arias 
were  designed  to  display  the  capacity  of  the  singers  in  the 
sustained  style,  their  ability  to  sustain  long  notes,  to  declaim 
the  words  rapidly  and  expressively,  to  sing  long  flourishes 


12  OPERAS 

("  divisions,"  they  were  called  in  England)  brilliantly,  and. 
in  general,  to  unfold  the  whole  art  of  beautiful  singing  as 
such. 

Naturally,  when  such  notions  prevailed,  the  singer  be- 
came the  dominating  figure  in  the  operatic  world,  and  the 
dramatist  dropped  completely  out  of  sight.  In  a  way  it  may 
be  said  that  the  reform  inaugurated  by  Gluck,  of  which  the 
Wagnerian  art  work  was  the  final  fruition  (for  there  has 
been  no  essential  progress  since  "Parsifal"),  was  the  com- 
poser's emancipation  of  himself  from  the  tyranny  of  the 
singer  and  an  unconscious  ebullition  of  the  old  spirit  which, 
in  the  first  instance,  had  created  the  lyric  drama.  In  a  pre- 
face to  his  "Alceste,"  Gluck  laid  down  a  statement  of  his 
reformatory  strivings.  He  wished  to  reduce  music  to  its 
true  function  as  the  helpmeet  of  poetry,  to  make  the  over- 
ture a  sort  of  argument  of  the  play  and  to  strive  for  beautiful 
simplicity.  The  words  must  sound  to  all  whose  historical 
knowledge  of  the  opera  is  bounded  by  the  last  century  like 
an  utterance  of  Wagner's.  The  principles  which  actuated 
this  master  musical  dramatist  have  been  often  set  forth,  but 
they  may  be  again  set  forth,  probably  with  profit.  Wagner, 
like  Gluck,  started  with  the  proposition  that  in  the  opera, 
music  had  usurped  a  place  which  did  not  belong  to  it;  it 
was  designed  (he  might  have  quoted  the  Florentines),  to 
be  a  means  and  it  had  become  an  end.  In  the  drama  is 
found  a  composite  form,  embracing  poetry,  music,  panto- 
mime and  scenery.  Each  of  these  factors  is  contributory  to 
the  whole  sum,  and  they  ought,  therefore,  to  co-operate  on 
a  basis  of  mutual  dependence  or  interdependence,  the  inspira- 
tion and  aim  of  all  being  dramatic  expression.  Music, 
therefore,  must  be  subordinated  to  the  text  which  gives 
rational  expression  to  the  dramatic  idea  and  aim,  not  to 
exalt  itself,  but  to  raise  the  word  to  a  higher  power  by 
giving  it  greater  emotional  vitality  than  it  possesses  in  itself. 
So,  also,  it  ought  to  vivify  the  pantomime  and  accompany 
the  stage  pictures.  In  order  to  do  this,  it  had  to  be  relieved 
of  the  shackles  of  form  which  had  been  placed  on  it  when 


OPERA  AND  LYRIC  DRAMA  13 

it  was  the  servant  of  beauty  merely,  so  that  it  might  move 
unimpeded  along  with  the  other  factors.  So  the  distinction 
between  recitatives  and  arias,  all  set  forms,  indeed,  were 
abolished  and  an  endless  strain  of  music  flowing  along  the 
lines  of  the  drama  took  their  places.  An  exalted  form  of 
speech  is  borne  along  on  a  flood  or  orchestral  music,  which, 
quite  as  much  as  song,  action  and  scenery,  concerns  itself 
with  the  exposition  of  the  drama.  And  this  flood  of  music, 
whether  it  be  vocal  or  instrumental,  has  for  its  themes 
melodic  phrases  which  are  identified  with  the  material  and 
spiritual  agencies  that  are  employed  in  the  development 
of  the  play. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA 

The  title  of  the  oldest  opera  extant  is  "  Eurydice."  its 
classic  characters  little  prophetic  of  the  motley  crowd  which 
has  followed  in  its  wake.  The  all-comprising  field  has  been 
as  wide  as  the  heavens  above  and  the  earth  beneath  and  the 
waters  under  the  earth,  and  fancy  has  been  called  upon  to 
supplement  with  beings  indigenous  to  none  of  these.  For 
opera  the  Bible  has  opened  its  pages  to  give  up  its  most 
picturesque  figures;  hosts  of  angels  have  descended  from 
heaven  to  foil  the  wicked  and  reward  the  good;  the  gods 
and  goddesses  have  voiced  their  mighty  passions  in  aria 
and  recitative;  history  has  furnished  manifold  actors  and 
incidents,  from  a  Roman  emperor  exhibiting  in  himself  a 
grotesque  combination  of  self-satisfied  pedantry  and  mon- 
strous tyranny,  to  a  benevolent,  sham-despising  cobbler  of 
Nuremburg;  romance  has  been  lured  from  its  quiet  retreat 
within  the  covers  of  a  book,  to  gay  trappings  and  the  glare 
of  the  calcium;  almost  the  entire  Shakespearean  band  have 
had  their  immortal  sentiments  transferred  to  a  place  below 
the  staff;  for  opera  the  walls  of  fairyland  have  fallen  down 
to  set  free  its  dainty  citizens;  the  grave  has  given  up  its 
sheeted  dead,  who  have  marched  forward  with  sepulchral 
meanings  and  the  rattling  of  dry  bones;  gnomes,  sprites  and 
genii  have  appeared  at  a  wave  of  the  conductor's  wand; 
numberless  witches  have  broken  down  for  mortals  the  con- 


16  OPERAS 

fines  of  the  natural  and  have  dispensed  love  potions  as  freely 
as  wine  in  Capri;  the  devil  himself  has  assumed  conventional 
garments  and  taken  a  singing  part;  the  fairy  tales  of  child- 
hood have  come  to  life;  birds  and  beasts  have  been  dowered 
with  the  power  of  speech  and  prophecy;  marble  statues  have 
repeatedly  taken  life  at  crucial  moments  and  sauntered  from 
their  pedestals.  The  enumeration  is  tempting  in  itself  and 
takes  one  far  afield  from  "Eurydice." 

When  the  dawn  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  was  begin- 
ning to  streak  the  clearing  sky  of  the  Renaissance,  a  little 
group  of  friends  formed  the  habit  of  meeting  at  the  palace 
of  Giovanni  Bardi,  Count  di  Vernio,  in  Florence.  It  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  discourse  was  interesting,  for  the  company 
was  far  from  commonplace.  Beside  the  host  there  was 
Vincenzo  Galileo,  father  of  the  great  astronomer  (and  wit- 
ness the  debt  of  science  to  the  "  Heavenly  Maid  " —  the  tube 
of  the  first  telescope  constructed  by  the  son  was  an  old  organ 
pipe  cast  off  by  the  musical  parent)  ;  Bernardo  Strozzi,  and 
Girolamo  Mei,  aristocratic  dilettanti ;  the  poet,  Ottavio  Rinuc- 
cini,  and  the  musicians,  Giulio  Caccini,  Jacopo  Peri,  Giacomo 
Corsi  and  Emilio  del  Cavaliere — La  Camerata,  as  they  called 
themselves.  Now,  a  deep  regard  for  anything  which  had 
come  down  from  classic  times  was  one  of  the  phases  of  the 
Renaissance.  This  attitude  is  not  hard  to  understand  in  the 
light  of  the  simple  grandeur  of  the  sculpture  and  poetry 
which  the  ages  have  left  as  a  legacy,  but  the  ancient  canons 
of  the  less  tangible  art  of  music  could  only  be  conjectured 
from  certain  allusions  in  classical  literature.  From  these, 
La  Camerata  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  at  least 
probable  that  "  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  sang  their 
tragedies  throughout  upon  the  stage,"  accompanied  by  an 
orchestra  of  lyres  and  flutes.  Must  Michaelangelo  and 
Ariosto  work  alone  for  the  world?  Not  while  La  Camerata 
existed!  And  what  could  be  better  worth  the  effort  than  a 
revival  of  that  stately  entertainment  for  which  ^schylus  and 
Sophocles  were  librettists  ?  "  Dafne,"  by  the  way,  was  writ- 
ten and  produced  in  1597,  but  its  score  has  been  lost.     In 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  17 

1600,  Rinuccini  wrote  a  poem,  with  very  obvious  appropri- 
ateness choosing  the  story  of  the  musician  Orpheus,  whose 
strains,  if  we  may  believe  all  we  are  told,  remain  to  the 
present  day  unrivaled  in  potency.  Both  Peri  and  Caccini 
put  it  to  music,  but  evidently  the  setting  of  Peri  accorded 
better  with  the  ideals  of  the  coterie,  for  when  festivities 
were  arranged  to  celebrate  the  marriage  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France  to  Marie  di  Medici,  it  was  chosen  for  presentation. 
We  know  little  of  the  costumes  or  the  stage  setting  and 
effects  of  the  premier  performance,  but  we  do  know  that  the 
composer  sang  the  hero's  role,  that  back  of  the  scenes 
Signor  Corsi  presided  at  the  harpsichord,  and  that  three  of 
his  friends  played  upon  the  chitarroni  or  guitar,  the  lira 
grande  or  viol  da  gamba,  and  the  theorbo  or  large  lute,  and 
that  three  flutes  were  used  in  the  ritornelle,  in  which  the 
shepherd  is  supposed  to  play  upon  the  triple  pipe.  We  know 
that  each  of  the  five  acts  concluded  with  a  chorus,  and  that 
the  dialogue  was  in  recitative.  We  know,  too,  that  no  later 
offering  of  pageantry  and  tunefulness  has  been  accorded 
greater  acclamation.  What  an  amusing  whimsy  of  fortune 
that  the  origin  of  opera  as  it  exists  today  should  be  due  to 
an  accident!  How  absurdly  unconscious  were  La  Camerata 
of  the  fact  that  they  had  failed  utterly  to  revive  the  ancient 
Greek  musical  declamation,  but  that  they  had  hit  upon  some- 
thing quite  new,  a  form  of  which  the  "  Ring  of  the  Nibe- 
lung  "  is  a  lineal  descendant. 

In  "  Eurydice  "  was  contained  the  great  principle  of  the 
modern  opera,  that  the  music  should  be  subservient  to  the 
emotional  meaning  of  the  text;  the  recitative  was  discovered, 
a  medium  between  speech  and  melody  which  is  the  basis  of 
the  lyric  drama,  with  all  its  forms,  indeed,  foreshadowed. 
It  was  the  reversal  of  the  usual  order  of  things;  the  would- 
be  imitators  were  inventors. 

Between  the  age  of  Pericles  and  that  of  the  Renaissance, 
music  and  the  drama  occasionally  had  been  associated, 
crudely,  it  is  true.  We  have  record  of  a  certain  "  Robin 
and   Marion,"   which   was  given   at   the   court   of   Charles 


18  OPERAS 

d'Artois  in  Naples  in  1285,  which  seems  to  have  been 
remarkably  similar  to  the  ballad  opera  that  has  preserved  its 
popularity  after  a  long  career.  For  this  the  composer,  Adam 
de  la  Halle,  took  a  number  of  the  songs  of  the  day,  arranged 
them  to  form  a  story  and  connected  them  by  a  dialogue  of 
his  own  invention.  Quite  similar  are  the  madrigal  plays  of 
a  slightly  later  period. 

In  1581,  "  Circe,"  a  ballet  opera,  was  performed  at  the 
Louvre  to  celebrate  a  royal  wedding.  The  masques,  which 
were  dramatic  entertainments  based  upon  mythological  or 
allegorical  subjects,  combined  with  their  poetry  and  dancing 
occasional  vocal  or  instrumental  music,  one  written  and 
arranged  by  Ben  Johnson  being  quite  operatic  in  conception. 
The  fact  remains,  however,  that  since  the  opera  was  not  an 
evolution,  these  instances  are  of  little  significance  in  its 
history. 

Seven  years  later,  at  Mantua,  the  marriage  of  Marghe- 
rita,  Infanta  of  Savoy,  to  Francesco  Gonzaga,  was  celebrated 
by  the  production  of  other  operas,  one  of  these  "Arianna," 
the  libretto  again  by  Rinuccini,  and  the  music  by  Claudio 
Monteverde,  chapel  master  of  the  bridegroom's  father,  the 
Duke  of  Mantua.  It  was  written  in  the  new  "  expressivo 
style "  (recitative),  which  had  been  found  to  invest  the 
words  with  a  dramatic  power  which  can  be  obtained  in  no 
other  way.  The  following  year,  Monteverde  produced  his 
"  Orfeo,"  which  was  a  remaVkable  advance  over  Peri's  treat- 
ment. The  composer  was  a  man  of  initiative  who  never  had 
been  convinced  that  nothing  was  good  unless  it  had  first 
been  thought  of  by  the  Greeks.  He  had  a  number  of  ideas 
of  his  own  concerning  the  orchestra,  and  in  "  Orfeo  "  over 
thirty  instruments  accompanied  the  lamentations  of  his  hero, 
or  voiced  the  shrieks  of  the  demons  as  he  drew  "  his  half- 
regain'd  Eurydice  "  along  the  flaming  passages  of  the  nether 
world.  These,  to  particularize,  were  two  harpsichords,  two 
bass  viols,  several  viols  "da  brazzio,"  a  double  harp,  two 
small  French  violins,  two  chitarroni,  two  organi  di  legno 
(^sets  of  wooden  pipes),  three  viols  da  g-amba,   four  trorn- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  19 

bones,  one  regale  (folding  organ),  two  cornetti  (wooden 
horns),  one  flute,  one  trumpet,  and  three  sordeni  (muted 
trumpets).  A  conception  so  vast  naturally  crowned  Monte- 
verde  with  glory  and  dowered  him  with  numerous  pupils 
and  imitators.  The  expense  of  such  productions  being  great, 
they  were  designed  only  for  the  edification  of  princes,  and 
as  yet  the  people  had  no  taste  of  opera. 

Lusty  growth  became  discernible  in  the  infant  form. 
For  instance,  two  new  orchestral  effects  had  been  introduced 
by  Monteverde,  the  pizzicato  of  plucked  strings,  and  the 
violin  tremolo.  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  founder  of  the  great 
Neapolitan  school,  and  the  most  learned  musician  of  the  day, 
divided  dramatic  expression  into  three  forms  —  recitative 
secco,  or  unaccompanied,  for  the  ordinary  business  of  the 
stage;  recitative  stromento,  or  accompanied,  for  the  expres- 
sion of  deep  emotion;  and  the  aria,  for  impassioned  soliloquy. 
In  1647,  the  opera  reached  Paris,  which  was  destined  to  be 
the  scene  of  many  of  its  later  triumphs  and  reforms.  The 
first  opera  to  be  performed  there  was  Peri's  "  Eurydice," 
which  remained  in  favor  despite  newer  developments.  The 
performance  was  under  the  patronage  of  Cardinal  Mazarin, 
who  was  thanked  very  poorly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
later  by  being  made  the  villain  in  one  of  Cherubini's 
compositions. 

Robert  Cambert,  against  whom  the  intriguing  Jean 
Baptiste  Lully  contrived  so  effectually,  tried  his  hand  at  the 
new  music,  his  "  Pomone  "  and  "  The  Pains  and  Pleasures 
of  Love  "  being  still  extant.  Lully,  taking  his  predecessor's 
operatic  form  as  he  found  it,  wrote  twenty  operas  in  less 
than  that  number  of  years,  reflecting  the  manners  and  tone 
of  the  French  court.  In  the  history  of  the  opera,  this 
shrewd  gentleman  is  important  for  having  put  the  French 
school  on  a  firm  basis,  and  for  the  invention  of  the  overture, 
then  consisting  of  a  prelude,  a  fugue,  and  a  dance  movement. 

Why  foolishly  insist  upon  the  absence  of  wise  deeds  in 
the  career  of  Charles  II.,  when  it  was  he  who  sent  Pelham 
Humphries  over  to  Paris  to  study  the  opera  from  Lully? 


20  OPERAS 

Inspired  by  his  recitals,  Henry  Purcell,  England's  greatest 
musical  genius,  in  1680  wrote  the  first  English  opera,  "  Dido 
and  yEneas,"  its  libretto  being  from  the  pen  of  Nahum  Tate, 
the  poet  laureate  of  the  time.  Its  merits  were  first  submitted 
to  a  young  ladies'  boarding  school  kept  by  Jonas  Priest  in 
Leicester  Fields.  Evidently  the  verdict  of  the  youthful  femi- 
nine mind  was  held  in  high  esteem  in  those  days.  The 
verdict  must  have  been  satisfactory,  at  any  rate,  for,  as 
Dryden  assures  us. 

So  ceased  the  rival  crew  when  Purcell  came; 
They  sung  no  more,  or  only  sung  his  name. 

Operatic  growth  was  somewhat  hindered  in  music- 
loving  Germany  by  the  exigencies  of  the  Thirty  Years  War, 
and  for  many  years  Hamburg  was  the  only  German  town 
where  opera  found  a  haven.  It  was  for  the  free  city  that 
Handel  wrote  his  earliest  works.  Afterward,  when  he  had 
made  a  conquest  of  Italy  and  was  acknowledged  the  fore- 
most composer  of  his  age,  he  went  to  London,  where  he 
produced  his  famous  "  Rinaldo  "  at  the  Queen's  Theater  in 
the  Haymarket.  Here  he  wrote  many  of  his  forty-one 
operas  and  became  the  favorite  of  the  town,  until,  in  deep 
disgust  at  the  bankruptcy  brought  on  by  the  machinations 
of  his  enemy  Buononcini,  he  discarded  the  form  and  took 
to  writing  the  oratorios  for  which  his  special  stamp  of  genius 
had  suited  him.  But  the  Hamburg  Theater  is  chiefly 
indebted  to  Reinhard  Keiser,  who  composed  over  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  operas  and  gave  his  labors  inspiration  in 
spite  of  this  dangerous  fecundity. 

And  now  that  opera  was  getting  well  past  the  century 
mark,  we  find  that  those  who  presided  over  its  destinies  had 
lost  sight  of  the  important  fact  that  simplicity  is  beauty. 
It  had  become  seriously  disfigured  by  embellishment  and 
overelaboration.  No  one  was  amazed  when,  in  the  most 
dramatic  situations,  the  action  was  suspended  while  the  hero 
or  heroine  indulged  in  displays  of  vocalism  in  whose  tangles 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  21 

emotion  gasped  and  finally  gave  up  the  ghost.  It  had  come 
to  a  pass  where  composer  and  librettist  might  well  collab- 
orate without  any  knowledge  of  each  other's  ideas,  so  little 
did  the  first  consider  the  second.  It  is  not  strange  that  one 
Signor  Marcello,  drawing  up  plans  and  specifications  for 
an  ideal  composer,  mentioned  with  some  sarcasm,  an  entire 
ignorance  of  poetry,  and  an  inability  to  distinguish  the  sense 
of  the  discourse.  So  far  had  consistency  been  lost  sight  of, 
that  in  Hamburg,  ^neas,  perchance  in  private  life  a  citizen 
of  Venice,  voiced  his  sentiments  in  his  own  Italian  and 
received  the  reproaches  of  a  Teutonic  Dido  in  good  gutteral 
German,  and  no  one  fancied  it  in  the  least  ludicrous.  Then, 
too,  in  the  course  of  events,  something  like  a  vocal  tyranny 
had  become  evident,  and  the  composer  was  compelled  to 
minister  to  the  caprice  or  limitations  of  the  singer  at  the 
expense  of  his  own  convictions.  But  rebellion  was  uprearing 
its  hitherto  drowsy  head,  and  while  he  who  was  to  lead  the 
fray  was  pondering  upon  "  the  abuses  introduced  by  the 
injudicious  vanity  of  singers,"  the  thoroughly  vexed  Handel 
was  holding  his  prima  donna,  Signora  Cuzzoni,  out  of  a 
high  window  in  the  hope  of  bringing  her  to  a  more  proper 
mind  to  appreciate  the  dictates  of  art.  And  while  opera  was 
crying  aloud  to  be  digged  from  the  pit  into  which  it  had 
fallen,  one  Christoph  Willibald  Gluck  was  busily  engaged  in 
writing  twenty  works,  strictly  adhering  to  the  accepted  style. 
At  last  Gluck  looked  up  from  his  labors  and  discerned 
the  truth.  He  was  then  well  along  in  life ;  he  was  over  sixty 
before  he  gave  to  the  world  the  full  expression  of  his  theo- 
ries. Like  the  majority  of  mankind,  he  learned  his  most 
valuable  lessons  through  bitter  experience.  He  went  to  Eng- 
land in  1746,  where  he  produced  "  Piramo  and  Tisbe,"  a 
pasticcio,  or  hybrid  affair  made  up  of  selections  from  earlier 
works.  Having  no  unity  or  intrinsic  worth,  it  was  naturally 
a  wretched  failure.  It  was,  nevertheless,  similar  to  the  typ- 
ical Italian  opera,  which  had  been  degraded  to  little  more 
than  a  miscellaneous  concert  with  a  thread  of  plot  running 
through  it. 


22  OPERAS 

Gluck  was  a  great  original  thinker  and  innovator;  he 
recognized  the  good  in  everything  pertaining  to  his  art;  he 
knew  how  to  assimilate  the  best;  unlike  Mozart,  he  trusted 
to  nothing  like  intuition,  but  must  have  the  why  and  where- 
fore. He  was  a  passionate  lover  of  nature,  which  means 
that  he  despised  the  artificial.  In  consequence  of  this  rare 
combination  of  traits,  he  was  able  to  do  this  for  the  opera : 
He  treated  it  as  an  integral  whole  for  the  first  time;  he 
made  it  individual,  with  a  character  and  atmosphere  of  its 
own;  he  developed  the  overture,  making  it  a  foreshadowing 
of  the  play,  a  thing  designed,  to  quote  his  own  words,  "  to 
prepare  the  spectator  for  the  character  of  the  piece."  He 
gave  the  chorus  its  proper  place  in  the  drama;  he  did  away 
with  recitative  secco  and  restored  the  aria  to  its  pristine 
simplicity.  To  the  orchestra,  by  which  he  secured  hitherto 
undreamed  of  effects,  he  added  clarinets,  harps,  trombones, 
and  percussion  instruments,  and  banished  the  harpsichord 
to  the  garret,  where  Handel  had  practiced  surreptitiously 
upon  its  cousin,  the  clavichord. 

Gluck  began  the  task  of  cleaning  out  the  Augean  stables 
with  his  opera  "  Orfeo,"  which,  brought  out  in  1762,  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  all  living  opera  composers.  It  may  have 
been  to  make  his  exposition  the  more  vivid  that  he  chose 
for  this,  the  oldest  opera  now  remaining  in  repertoire,  the 
same  legendary  episode  that  Peri  had  treated  in  the  first  of 
all  the  operas.  Strange  to  say,  he  followed  with  several 
works  in  the  old  style,  which  can  only  be  explained  as  pot- 
boilers. But  in  1767  appeared  "Alceste,"  in  which  he  com- 
pletely embodied  his  theories.  That  these  reformatory  meas- 
ures were  in  no  manner  without  intention  is  proved  in  the 
dedication  of  this  work,  addressed  to  the  Duke  of  Tuscany 
by  "  Y.  R.  H.'s  most  humble,  most  devoted,  most  obliged 
servant." 

"  I  seek  to  put  music  to  its  true  purpose,  that  is,  to 
support  the  poem,  and  thus  to  strengthen  the  expression  of 
the  feeling  and  the  interest  of  the  situation  without  inter- 
rupting the  action.     I  have,  therefore,  refrained  from  inter- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  23 

rupting  the  actor  in  the  fervor  of  his  dialogue  by  introducing 
the  accustomed  tedious  ritornelle,  nor  have  I  broken  his 
phrase  at  an  opportune  vowel  that  the  flexibility  of  a  fine 
voice  might  be  exhibited  in  a  lengthy  flourish;  nor  have  I 
written  phrases  for  the  orchestra  to  afford  the  singer  an 
opportunity  to  take  a  long  breath  preparatory  to  the  accepted 
flourishes.  Nor  have  I  dared  to  hurry  over  the  second  part 
of  an  aria  when  such  contained  the  passion  and  most  im- 
portant matter,  to  find  myself  in  accord  with  the  conven- 
tional repeat  of  the  same  phrase  four  times.  As  little  have 
I  permitted  myself  to  close  an  aria  where  the  sense  was 
incomplete,  solely  to  afford  the  singer  an  opportunity  of 
introducing  a  cadenza.  In  short,  I  have  striven  to  abolish 
all  those  bad  habits  against  which  sound  reasoning  and  true 
taste  have  been  struggling  now  for  so  long  in  vain." 

In  1770,  "  Paris  and  Helen  "  was  produced  in  the  new 
lines.  All  this  had  occurred  in  Vienna,  which  remained 
quite  unmoved  and  uninterested,  and  so  lost  its  opportunity 
to  be  the  seat  of  an  important  revolution. 

Gluck  went  to  Paris  in  1773,  where  the  battle  that  was 
to  fill  his  declining  years  with  adventure  was  waged.  One 
cannot  help  fancying  that  it  was  not  altogether  distasteful 
to  this  energetic,  quick  tempered,  humorous,  witty,  politic, 
staunch  master.  A  number  of  his  new  works  were  per- 
formed, and  in  1774,  for  the  first  time,  "  Iphigenia  in  Aulis." 
He  became  a  hero.  A  night  at  the  opera  was  so  brilliant, 
so  momentous,  that  exra  police  were  detailed;  Marie  An- 
toinette gave  him  her  patronage;  aristocratic  gentlemen  were 
flattered  to  help  him  on  with  his  surtout  or  hand  him  his 
wig  after  a  performance;  he  was  granted  a  pension  of  six 
thousand  livres,  and  the  critics  used  no  faint  praise  for  his 
damnation. 

But  the  way  of  the  reformer  is  seldom  a  road  in  Arcady. 
He  was  not  to  snap  his  fingers  in  the  face  of  long-established 
conventions  without  causing  trouble.  The  old  had  loyal  sup- 
porters. Many  there  were  who  called  his  work  crude  and 
untuneful,  and  said  that  it  was  absurd  to  put  to  music  some 


24  OPERAS 

of  the  things  he  did.  They  added  to  his  discredit  that  dead- 
liest of  sins  to  a  Frenchman,  tiresomeness.  These  doubting 
Parisians  were  as  bad  as  the  Viennese  who  had  dubbed  his 
**Alceste  "  a  "  De  Profundis." 

But  the  conservatives  paid  him  the  compliment  to  send 
to  Italy  for  ammunition.  This  came  back  in  the  person  of 
Niccola  Piccini,  the  foremost  composer  of  the  day.  For 
dramatic  considerations,  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  cham- 
pion and  exponent  of  Italian  opera  was  so  small,  mild  man- 
nered and  unfailingly  polite,  a  creature  so  sensitive  that, 
when  a  child,  the  mere  sight  of  a  clavichord  had  made  him 
faint  with  emotion,  for  otherwise  we  could  witness  with 
greater  delight  the  assault  of  the  big,  bluff,  sarcastic  Gluck. 
Perhaps  it  is  his  compensation  that,  as  a  principal  in  this, 
the  most  picturesque  contest  in  the  history  of  music,  his 
memory  has  been  kept  green,  while  otherwise  it  might  be 
relegated  to  the  oblivion  which  awaited  his  operas.  To  be 
fair,  credit  must  be  accorded  to  Piccini  for  the  development 
of  the  operatic  finale,  in  which  remarkable  effect  was  secured 
by  uniting  the  various  voices  in  rich  harmony. 

They  performed  their  rival  pieces  and  all  Paris  took 
sides.  The  war  in  America  was  forgotten.  The  whispered 
question  was  not  "Whig  or  Tory?"  It  was  "  Gluckist  or 
Piccinist?"  And  beware  of  the  answer.  Life  long  friend- 
ships were  sacrificed  upon  the  altar  of  argument;  all  the 
wits  and  litterateurs  were  ranged,  and  bon  mots  were  scat- 
tered with  prodigality.  Dozens  of  them  have  come  down 
for  our  delectation.  There  is  no  record  of  the  actual  spilling 
of  blood,  but  no  weapon  can  inflict  such  keen  discomfort  as 
the  lash  of  sarcasm.  It  was  a  serious  business  and  one  who 
took  a  hand  in  it  merely  to  be  fashionable  was  likely  to  be 
sorry  for  it.  This  was  the  case  with  the  Chevalier  de  Cas- 
tellux,  a  gentleman  not  remarkable  for  mental  equipment, 
who,  when  he  attempted  to  discuss  the  matter  with  Gluck's 
admirer,  the  Marquis  de  Clermont,  was  discomfited  by  the 
reply,  "  I  will  sing  you  an  air,  and  if  you  are  capable  of 
beating  correct  time  to  it,  I  will  discuss  Gluck  with  you." 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  25 

There  are  many  great  names  on  the  roster  of  this 
operatic  war.  Of  the  Gluckists,  Marie  Antoinette,  who  had 
been  his  pupil  in  Vienna;  the  Abbe  Arnaud,  Voltaire  and 
Jean  Jacques  Rousseau;  on  the  other  side,  Marmontel,  La 
Harpe,  Madame  Du  Barry,  d'Alembert,  Framery,  Coqueau, 
some  of  whom  figured  tragically  a  little  later  in  the  greatest 
of  all  revolutions. 

Although  the  Queen  was  at  heart  with  Gluck,  she  made 
a  laudable  effort  to  be  impartial.  It  was  agreed  that  each 
should  write  an  opera  upon  "  Iphigenia  in  Tauris  "  and  fight 
it  out  upon  the  same  ground.  Gluck's  work  was  produced 
in  1779  and  proved  his  masterpiece  and  the  most  satisfac- 
tory exposition  of  his  ideas.  Piccini's  appeared  some  time 
later  and  suffered  sadly  in  comparison.  Gluck,  who  had  with 
him  the  spirit  of  the  age,  had  won  in  the  battle  of  the  natural 
against  the  artificial. 

It  took  a  number  of  years  for  the  world  to  learn  that 
it  was  not  sacrilege  to  smile  within  the  precincts  of  the 
opera.  The  thought  of  mirth  was  far  removed  from  the 
mighty  business  of  the  gods,  which  formed  the  almost  inva- 
riable subject  of  these  works.  Ordinary  human  life  had 
never  been  reflected  in  any  aspect.  But  mankind  gropes 
after  laughter  as  surely  as  the  dawn  follows  the  dark,  and 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century  we  find  between  the  acts  of  serious 
operas,  musical  interludes  in  lighter  vein,  to  afford  the  relax- 
ation which  the  audience  craved.  These  were  evolved  from 
the  burlesques  and  puppet  shows,  which  may  in  turn  be 
traced  to  antiquity.  It  grew  to  be  the  custom  for  the  same 
characters  to  figure  in  these  intermezzi,  and  then  it  occurred 
to  some  one  to  unite  them  into  one  piece.  It  was  done. 
Opera  buffa  had  been  originated  and  had  been  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  an  independent  institution.  The  people  were 
more  than  consoled  to  have  "  Orpheus  and  Eurydice,"  "  The- 
seus and  Ariadne,"  "  Paris  and  Helen,"  replaced  by  the  very 
people  they  might  have  known,  whose  emotions  they  could 
understand  without  any  exercise  of  imagination ;  the  saucy 
serving  maid,  the  crusty  old  bachelor,  the  ringletted  damsel 


26  OPERAS 

with  whom  it  would  not  be  too  difficult  to  fancy  a  flirtation. 
That  opera  buffa  achieved  a  speedy  and  unqualified  popular- 
ity it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  state,  for  it  was  the  amusement 
of  the  people.  Then,  too,  the  monarchial  sway  of  serious 
opera  had  been  endangered  by  the  conventional  absurdities 
which  had  come  to  mar  it.  Providence  was  working  in  the 
usual  mysterious  way,  and  the  abuses  to  which  this  musical 
form  had  been  put  led  the  people  to  take  refuge  in  the  new 
form  as  surely  as  they  caused  the  reforms  of  Gluck. 

Some  musical  entertainment  of  a  lighter  character  had 
antedated  opera  buffa,  and,  in  1639,  a  musical  comedy  by 
Mazzocchi  and  Marazzoli  was  performed  in  Florence,  the 
poet  Milton  being  present  to  applaud  its 

Jest  and  youthful  jollity, 

Quips  and  cranks  and  wanton  wiles, 

Nods  and  becks  and  wreathed  smiles. 

One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  promoted  intermezzi 
was  Pergolesi's  "  La  Serva  Padrone,"  which  for  a  century 
was  looked  upon  as  its  most  admirable  example.  It  was 
taken  to  Paris  in  1750  and  may  be  said  to  have  founded  the 
school  of  French  opera  comique,  essentially  a  French  crea- 
tion, and  which,  in  stage  terminology,  has  come  to  mean 
any  opera  with  spoken  dialogue,  no  matter  how  serious  the 
subject. 

Previous  to  this,  musical  pantomime  occasionally  had 
enlivened  French  fairs  and  festivals.  Its  more  ambitious 
form  was  received  with  such  acclamation  that  the  advocates 
of  the  serious  school  remonstrated  and  a  "  war  of  the  buf- 
fons  "  was  waged.  The  first  true  comic  opera,  "  Le  Devin 
du  Village,"  was  produced  by  the  famous  Rousseau  and 
performed  at  the  Academie  de  Musique.  Monsigny  placed 
opera  comique  on  a  firmer  basis  by  fusing  the  merits  of  the 
French  and  Italian  schools,  and  Gretry,  with  his  fifty  or 
more  works,  carried  it  to  a  yet  higher  plane. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  27 

In  Germany  any  dramatic  entertainment  in  which  music 
and  dialogue  alternated  was  known  as  singspiel  or  song-play, 
and,  as  such,  still  has  a  regular  place  on  the  German  stage. 
John  Adam  Hiller  was  the  first  to  cultivate  the  Teutonic 
prototype  of  the  comic  opera. 

The  movement  became  evident  in  England  with  the 
ballad  opera,  which  today  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe 
retains  its  standing  as  a  popular  entertainment.  "  The  Beg- 
gar's Opera  "  was  the  most  famous  of  the  lot,  attaining  to 
a  popularity  unrivaled  before  or  since,  even  by  its  charming 
descendants,  the  Gilbert-Sullivan  operettas.  It  is  a  keen 
satire  on  the  politicians  and  courtiers  of  that  day,  and  de- 
picts their  irregularities  in  a  fashion  which  must  have  been 
more  than  disconcerting.  The  dialogue,  written  by  John 
Gay,  is  interspersed  with  sixty-nine  English  and  Scotch 
ballads  arranged  and  scored  by  Dr.  Pepusch.  It  was  first 
produced  in  London,  January  29,   1728. 

The  conventional  Italian  opera,  which  impresario  Handel 
was  producing  at  the  Haymarket  to  his  own  financial  ruin, 
came  in  with  the  courtiers  for  its  share  of  the  scoring,  which 
may  have  added  impetus  to  the  reformatory  movement  that 
crystallized  a  number  of  years  later  in  Gluck.  Says  the 
Beggar  in  the  prologue,  with  his  tongue  in  his  cheel^,  "  I 
hope  I  may  be  forgiven  that  I  have  not  made  my  opera 
throughout  unnatural,  like  those  in  vogue." 

The  rise  of  opera  buffa  at  this  time  was  fortunate  in 
that  it  provided  for  the  delicate,  human  genius  of  Mozart 
a  more  congenial  channel  than  the  heavy  tragedy  which  had 
for  so  long  been  held  in  esteem.  He  was  neither  a  reformer 
nor  an  iconoclast;  he  serenely  accepted  conditions  as  he 
found  them,  and  his  influence  is  rather  in  the  light  of  an 
inspiration.  Gounod  has  been  both  preceded  and  seconded 
in  the  rapturous  panegyric  in  which  he  exclaims  of  Mozart's 
masterpiece,  "  Don  Juan,"  "  It  has  influenced  my  life  like  a 
revelation.  It  stands  in  my  thoughts  like  an  incarnation  of 
dramatic  and  musical  impeccability."  Goethe  swears  with 
similar  enthusiasm,   that  one  had   not  lived   who   has   not 


28  OPERAS 

heard  "  Don  Juan."  The  story  of  his  operatic  career  is  as 
quaint  and  moving  as  one  of  his  pieces.  His  first  opera, 
"  La  Finta  SempHce,"  was  written  at  the  age  of  twelve, 
after  a  childhood  which  reads  like  a  fairy  tale.  It  is  hard 
to  imagine  how  the  winsome,  affectionate  boy  could  have 
had  enemies  who  prevented  the  production  of  the  piece.  It 
is  not  hard  to  imagine  how  the  quivering  lip  and  tear-welled 
eye  of  the  mature  composer  could  touch  the  Archbishop  of 
Salsburg  to  arrange  a  special  performance  for  his  conso- 
lation after  a  year  which,  as  we  who  have  been  twelve-year- 
olds  well  know,  may  be  quite  as  long  as  a  century.  In  view 
of  this,  we  shall  have  to  forgive  the  Archbishop  for  his  five 
pound  per  annum  stipend. 

"  Idomeno,"  produced  in  the  composer's  early  manhood, 
was  superior  in  concerted  music  and  instrumentation  to  any 
opera  yet  written,  and  practically  laid  the  foundation  for 
modern  orchestration.  It  was  Mozart,  too,  who  developed 
the  act-finale  which  Logroscino  had  invented.  By  his  three 
great  operas,  "  Don  Juan,"  "  The  Marriage  of  Figaro " 
and  the  "  Magic  Flute,"  he  fused  the  best  of  the  different 
national  schools,  lifting  the  lyric  drama  to  hitherto  unreached 
heights,  and  providing  a  lofty  ideal  of  musical  character 
drawing.  As  his  admirable  biographer.  Otto  Jahn,  affirms, 
"  He  assembled  the  traditions  of  a  long  period  of  develop- 
ment and  put  the  finishing  stroke  to  it."  In  short,  the  sub- 
sequent history  of  opera  would  have  lost  half  its  luster  had 
not  this  delicate,  simple,  improvident,  irresponsible,  wholly 
lovable  person  made  the  world  his  habitation  for  thirty- 
five  years. 

While  Beethoven  contributed  nothing  essentially  new 
to  the  opera,  its  chronicle  is  scarcely  complete  without  ref- 
erence to  his  "  Fidelio "  (a  lonely  bachelor's  soliloquy  on 
conjugal  love),  which  was  produced  in  Prague  in  1805,  for 
between  Mozart  and  Wagner  its  greatness  was  unrivaled. 
Such  was  the  nature  of  the  genius  of  the  "  Mighty  Ludwig  " 
that  he  was  hampered  by  the  restrictions  of  the  stage,  but  he 
nevertheless   gave   unwearying   care   to   the   work.      Unfor- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  29 

tunately,  his  text  was  not  of  the  caliber  of  "  Don  Juan,"  but 
frequently  bourgeois  and  sentimental,  but  he  brought  to  it 
the  fulness  of  his  powers,  giving  to  it  a  deeper  and  more 
dramatic  expression  than  any  previous  composer,  and  teach- 
ing by  it  that  perfection  of  musical  form  is  not  inconsistent 
with  the  achievement  of  the  strongest  dramatic  effect.  In 
spite  of  its  Spanish  background,  "  Fidelio "  is  thoroughly 
German.  History  repeats  itself,  and  the  public  received  this 
coldly,  as  it  has  many  other  great  things.  Weber,  who  man- 
aged it,  cried  in  disgust,  "Bah!  what  they  want  is  Punch 
and  Judy!" 

Soon  after  this,  romantic  opera  was  crystallized  into 
form  in  Weber's  "Der  Frieschiitz."  It  was  a  token  of  the 
same  desire  to  return  to  nature  after  the  long  tyranny  of 
the  so-called  classical  that  became  apparent  in  literature  at 
this  time.  In  romantic  opera,  the  people  came  into  their 
own  more  thoroughly  than  ever  before.  It  was  founded  on 
the  folk-song  which  is  the  untrammelled  expression  of  the 
popular  heart.  And  just  as  heartily  was  it  welcomed  by  the 
composer,  for  it  was  less  restricted  in  form  than  the  clas- 
sical, which,  since  the  days  of  Gluck,  had  held  sway.  Roman- 
tic, as  applied  to  opera,  is  a  trifle  elusive  of  definition.  The 
works  it  describes  are  inspired  by  the  medieval  legends  and 
tales  of  love  and  chivalry  written  in  the  old  Romance  dia- 
lects and  in  consequence  called  romances.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  they  shall  deal  with  the  supernatural,  though  sprites 
and  witches,  ghosts  and  mermaids,  are  as  familiar  figures 
of  romance  as  they  are  of  folk-lore.  The  text  may  speak  of 
dashing  knights  and  haughty  ladies  or  deal  with  the  common 
people.  It  is  equally  well  at  home  in  the  depths  of  the  sylvan 
vale  and  at  the  tournament.  Weber,  the  most  national  of 
the  German  composers,  knew  the  character  of  his  people  and 
embodied  it  in  his  music,  and  in  "  Der  Frieschiitz "  he 
formulated  a  style  which  has  been  a  model  since  his  day. 
His  use  of  the  leitmotif  fairly  entitles  him  to  the  honor  of 
its  invention.  Weber  believed  in  the  organic  union  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  opera  and  excelled  all  his  predecessors 


30  OPERAS 

in  the  use  of  the  orchestra  as  a  means  of  dramatic  charac- 
terization. Among  those  who  followed  bravely  in  his  foot- 
steps were  Louis  Spohr  (1784-1859)  and  Heinrich  Marsch- 
ner  (1796-1861.) 

While  Mozart,  Beethoven  and  Weber  were  making  his- 
tory in  Germany,  we  find  no  names  to  match  theirs  in  Italy, 
the  cradle  of  opera.  In  passing,  credit  must  be  given  to 
Cimarosa  (the  worthiest  of  the  composers  between  Scar- 
latti and  Rossini),  who  was  equally  at  home  in  opera  seria 
and  opera  buffa,  his  "  Matrimonio  Segreto  "  of  the  latter  sort 
being  a  worthy  monument  to  his  genius.  But  the  glory  of 
earlier  days  had  departed,  and  opera  had  gone  far  astray 
from  the  teachings  of  Gluck. 

Another  tyranny  of  the  singer  was  at  hand,  and  the 
amazing  incongruities  to  which  it  gave  rise  have  been  the 
subject  of  many  humorous  descriptions.  How  it  was  haz- 
ardous to  speculate  as  to  the  relation  of  the  characters  upon 
the  stage  from  any  evidence  furnished  by  their  actions;  how 
they  frequently  disregarded  each  other  altogether  and 
addressed  themselves  entirely  to  the  audience;  how  the  cho- 
ruses were  a  thing  apart  and  without  significance,  and  the 
halls  of  Caesar  or  the  vales  of  Greece,  whatever  the  scene 
might  be,  were  but  an  elaborate  setting  for  the  skyrockets 
of  the  vocalist.  Composition  was  profuse,  it  is  true,  but 
upon  false  artistic  principles. 

Out  of  all  this  chaos  there  came  to  pass  a  genius, 
Gioachino  Rossini,  who  as  time  demonstrated,  was  without 
that  indispensable  attribute  of  genius,  an  infinite  capacity  for 
taking  pains.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  this  debonair  Ros- 
sini in  the  role  of  a  reformer.  He  would  doubtless  have 
scouted  the  idea.  He  took  things  very  much  as  he  found 
them,  content  to  minister  to  a  taste  diseased,  but  with  what 
stimulation  he  infused  the  palsied  forms!  With  what  volup- 
tuous beauty  he  hid  their  defects,  with  "  just  naked,  ear- 
delighting,  delicious,  meaningless  sound,"  to  quote  Wagner, 
to  whom  to  be  meaningless  was  the  worst  sin  in  the 
calendar.     He   continued   to   overornament  them  like   silly 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  31 

women,  who  would  display  all  their  jewels  at  once.  But 
such  jewels  had  never  before  been  imagined.  He  did  insist 
upon  having  his  melodies  sung  as  they  were  written,  where- 
as the  Italian  singers  had  considered  it  altogether  proper  to 
deck  their  arias  with  extemporized  filigree  work.  Another 
of  his  innovations  was  recitative  accompanied  by  a  quartet 
of  strings  in  place  of  'cello  and  piano.  To  Rossini  the  bass 
singer  may  trace  his  emancipation,  for  until  "  Tancredi  "  he 
had  not  been  granted  as  much  as  a  place  in  the  background. 

The  son  of  the  town  trumpeter  was  still  young  when 
he  had  become  the  "  Swan  of  Pesaro,"  with  nobles  for  his 
friends,  Prince  Metternich  for  an  adviser,  and  all  the  rest  of 
Europe  at  his  feet.  As  a  contemporary  writes,  "  he  had 
intoxicated  the  public,"  Beethoven  had  been  forgotten  for 
him.  Schumann  has  tried  to  do  his  share  toward  making 
up  to  Beethoven  for  this  temporary  oblivion,  and  likens  the 
two  to  an  eagle  and  a  butterfly.  Alas  for  its  permanency, 
the  Rossinian  school  was  based  upon  incorrect  ideas.  How- 
ever, the  world  is  still  grateful  for  the  masterpiece,  "  William 
Tell,"  in  which  are  apparent  few  of  Rossini's  faults,  while 
his  "  Barber  of  Seville  "  is  an  admirable  piece  of  opera  buffa, 
possibly  the  greatest  ever  written. 

When  the  German  critics  accused  him  of  corrupting 
musical  art,  he  made  the  characteristic  reply :  "  They  wish 
that  I  composed  like  Haydn  and  Mozart.  But  if  I  took  all 
the  pains  in  the  world,  I  should  still  be  a  wretched  Haydn 
or  Mozart.  So  I  prefer  to  remain  a  Rossini.  Whatever 
that  may  be,  it  is  something,  and,  at  least,  I  am  not  a  bad 
Rossini."  Although,  for  what  reason  no  one  has  been  able 
to  conjecture,  Rossini  left  the  field  at  thirty-seven,  to  remain 
in  obstinate  retirement  for  more  than  half  his  life,  his  influ- 
ence has  added  many  pages  to  the  chronicle  of  opera.  His 
followers  were  Donizetti  and  Bellini,  two  of  the  strongest 
men  of  the  period,  who  have  had  an  enormous  audience. 
They  both  were  dowered  with  the  power  to  touch  the  heart, 
more  indeed  than  their  master.  Donizetti  was  arch  and 
rather   dramatic,   and   both   were   sweet,   tender   and   senti- 


32  OPERAS 

mental.  Especially  is  this  true  of  Bellini.  But  the  public 
grew  satiated  with  sweetness,  and  tenderness,  and  senti- 
mentality and  discovered  that  under  it  was  lacking  a  very 
desirable  artistic  vitality. 

At  this  juncture,  a  German  Jew  named  Giacomo  Meyer- 
beer moved  from  Italy  to  Paris  in  eager  quest  of  ideas  and 
set  himself  busily  to  the  work  of  composition.  But  just 
previous  to  the  appearance  of  the  first  of  his  works,  Daniel 
Auber,  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  comic  opera  writers, 
produced  his  "  Masaniello  "  in  1830,  and  paved  the  way  for 
the  new  epoch  of  grand  opera.  This  work,  "  white-hot 
with  the  breath  of  the  proletariat,"  was  the  first  realistic 
drama  in  five  acts  to  possess  the  attributes  of  a  tragedy, 
which  was  especially  disturbing  to  the  Germans,  who  had 
always  considered  it  proper  to  send  people  home  in  a  com- 
fortable frame  of  mind.  "  Masaniello  "  was  in  every  respect 
more  than  casual  and,  among  other  things,  inspired  the 
uprising  in  Brussels  which  brought  about  the  kingdom  of 
Belgium. 

Grand  opera,  however,  is  associated  with  the  name  of 
Meyerbeer,  in  whom  a  transcendent  love  of  pageantry  was 
strangely  combined  with  a  personal  frugality  which 
amounted  almost  to  niggardliness.  Such  pomp  and  fan- 
fare and  splendid  processions,  such  a  wealth  of  scenic  and 
orchestral  effect  had  been  conceived  by  no  forerunner.  The 
world  had  never  seen  anything  as  daring  as  his  "  Robert  the 
Devil ;"  as  spectacular  as  his  "  Prophet,"  as  thrilling  and 
melodramatic  as  his  "  Huguenots."  France  was  so  dazzled 
that  she  did  not  realize  that  the  national  opera  was  drifting 
far  away  from  the  pure,  virile  style  of  Gluck.  The  founda- 
tions upon  which  Meyerbeer  raised  his  tremendous  struc- 
tures were  not  as  broad  and  strong  as  they  needed  to  be. 
He  was  too  prone  to  strive  for  the  purely  effective.  He  was 
praised  to  the  skies  during  his  lifetime  and  has  been  under- 
rated since.  It  has  for  years  been  the  fashion  to  "  find  him 
out;"  delight  is  taken  in  calling  him  the  charlatan  of  French 
opera;  but  however  full  of  faults  he  may  have  been,  he  is 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  33 

master  of  dramatic  effect,  and  he  did  service  by  loosening 
the  rigid  bonds  of  traditional  form. 

The  Nineteenth  Century  was  full  of  activity.  Names 
not  at  all  epoch-making  were,  in  France,  Ferdinand  Boiel- 
dieu  (1775-1834),  whose  "  La  Dame  Blanche  "  was  for  many 
years  the  ever  cited  classical  example  of  opera  comique; 
Adolphe  Adam  (1803-1856);  Victor  Masse  (1822-1884); 
Leo  Delibes  (1836-1891);  E.  Lalo  (1823-1892);  Charles 
Gounod  (1818-1893),  famed  for  his  perennial  "Faust:" 
Georges  Bizet  (1838-1875),  known  best  for  his  inspired 
"Carmen,"  and  Ambroise  Thomas  (1811-1896). 

In  Germany,  in  this  brief  consideration,  we  must  men- 
tion Conradin  Kreutzer  (1780-1849),  Otto  Nicolai  (1810- 
1849),  Gustav  Lortzing  (1801-1851)  and  Frederick  Flotow 
(1812-1883).  In  England,  the  fate  of  opera  lay  in  the 
hands  of  William  Vincent  Wallace  (1814-1865),  Michael 
Balfe  (1808-1870) —his  "Bohemian  Girl"  being  probably 
the  most  popular  of  modern  ballad  operas  —  and  Sir  Julius 
Benedict  (1804-1885). 

The  middle  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  is  remarkable 
for  the  appearance  of  the  most  important  figure  in  all  the 
three  hundred  years  of  opera — Richard  Wagner — who  was 
destined  to  be  a  reformer  like  Gluck,  whom  he  resembles  in 
many  respects,  chief  among  them  being  that  he  was  a  good 
fighter  and  terribly  in  earnest.  Also,  like  Gluck,  his  youth 
was  not  without  its  mistakes.  Of  these,  "  Rienzi,"  written  in 
frank  imitation  of  Meyerbeer  (by  one  who  afterward  was 
shown  to  be  the  most  original  of  men),  is  the  only  one 
worthy  of  more  than  a  cursory  mention.  After  its  produc- 
tion, the  young  German  sallied  forth  to  Paris,  where  Lully, 
Gluck,  Piccini,  Cherubini,  Spontini,  Rossini,  Meyerbeer, 
Donizetti  and  the  rest  of  them  had  gone  before  him,  with 
high  hopes  of  seeing  some  of  his  works  produced,  and  with 
Meyerbeer's  letters  of  introduction  in  his  pocket.  But  Paris 
was  cold.  She  did  not  realize  that  he  had  come;  all  of 
which  was  very  fortunate  for  Wagner  as  well  as  for  the 
world,   Paris   included.     Had   he   received   a   welcome   such 


34  OPERAS 

as  Rossini  had  enjoyed,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  he  would 
have  been  content  to  pursue  a  lucrative  career,  composing 
upon  the  approved  conventional  lines,  and  adding  many 
other  "  Rienzis  "  to  the  "  whole  clinking,  twinkling,  glitter- 
ing, glistening  show  —  Grand  Opera,"  as  he  was  later  pleased 
to  designate  the  style  then  in  vogue.  But  his  was  a  soul 
which  the  buffetings  of  Fortune  did  not  subdue,  but  instead 
engendered  therein  a  wholesome  spirit  of  defiance.  To  the 
same  good  end  worked  his  exile  in  Switzerland,  which 
resulted  upon  the  political  troubles  of  1848.  With  the  world 
lost  anyhow,  he  might  well  write  as  he  pleased.  And  so 
he  grew  steadily,  each  succeeding  opera  being  an  advance 
upon  its  predecessors,  and  a  fuller  embodiment  of  the  theo- 
ries which  took  practical  shape  in  the  great  cycle,  and  reached 
their  highest  expression  in  "  Tristan  and  Isolde." 

He  would  have  none  of  the  feeble  librettos  which  other 
composers  of  the  day  accepted.  He  was  convinced  that 
"  Orpheus'  lute  was  strung  with  poet's  sinews,"  and  to  make 
sure  of  the  quality  of  the  poetry  he  wrote  it  himself.  He 
went  back,  not  to  Gluck,  but  as  far  as  1600,  discarding 
every  dramatic  tradition  which  had  accumulated  in  that 
time,  but  with  the  immeasurable  advantage  over  Peri  of 
more  than  two  centuries'  development  of  technique.  In 
truth,  he  did  away  with  the  opera  and  created  a  complete 
organic  union,  the  music  drama. 

Among  the  most  important  of  his  theories  is  that  the 
music  should  be  secondary  to  the  drama  whose  emotional 
import  it  should  faithfully  reflect  and  intensify,  the  relation 
of  the  poetry  to  the  music  being  as  that  of  a  sketch  to  the 
color.  He  believed  it  to  be  essential  that  the  libretto  should 
be  worthy,  or,  of  necessity,  the  music  which  was  built  upon 
it  could  not  be.  He  claimed  that  a  composer  should  write 
his  own  drama  in  order  that  he  might  be  more  fully  in 
sympathy  with  it.  Believing  that  the  music  should  not 
break  or  interrupt  the  action,  he  did  away  with  all  arias, 
duets,  concerted  finales  and  ensembles  (with  a  very  few 
exceptions,  notable  among  which  is  the  opening  of  Act  III 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  35 

in  "The  Valkyrie"),  deeming  these  unnatural  and  inartistic. 
He  made  use  of  a  melos,  or,  as  it  has  been  variously  defined, 
an  endless  recitative,  a  musical  declamation,  a  speech-song, 
which  could  be  made  either  melodic  or  harmonic.  He  made 
use  of  the  leading  motive,  which  is  a  characteristic  melody 
or  musical  phase,  associated  with  a  particular  personage  and 
accompanying  him  throughout  the  score.  He  treated  the 
leading  motive  more  consistently  and  with  far  greater  effect 
than  had  any  of  his  occasional  predecessors.  In  his  later 
works,  the  score  is  a  veritable  web,  woven  out  of  these  vari- 
ous motives.  He  made  a  symphonic  use  of  the  orchestra, 
his  employment  of  the  leading  motive  enabling  him  to  give 
a  running  commentary  on  the  action,  like  the  chorus  in  the 
ancient  Greek  tragedy,  which  could  refer  to  past  circum- 
stances in  the  life  of  the  character  or  even  paint  his  inmost 
thoughts.  In  short,  he  made  of  the  music  drama,  a  form 
as  truly  artistic  as  the  symphony  or  sonata  and  worthy  to 
take  its  place  beside  these  unimpeachable  forms  of  abstract 
music. 

Not  content  with  being  a  composer  and  a  poet,  he 
wrote  two  volumes,  "  The  Art  Work  of  the  Future  "  (1849) 
and  "  Opera  and  Drama  "  (1851),  in  which  he  explained  the 
theories  which  he  even  then  fancied  pretty  fully  conceived. 
In  1857  he  solemnly  announced  that  he  was  done  with  theo- 
rizing, and  that  his  plans  were  absolutely  completed.  But 
each  time  he  was  mistaken.  Their  unconscious,  inevitable 
Evolution  was  not  to  be  fully  accomplished  for  many  years. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  state  that  one  who  sinned  so 
deeply  against  preconceived  notions,  should  be  vigorously 
hooted  and  decried.  Censure  greeted  "  The  Flying  Dutch- 
man," in  which  he  began  to  find  himself;  the  public  called 
"  Tannhauser  "  ugly  and  blatant  and  even  stopped  its  ears  to 
the  "  Song  of  the  Evening  Star;"  in  "Lohengrin  "  (a  transi- 
tional work),  the  admiration  of  a  prince  who  went  to  such 
lengths  as  the  construction  of  a  swan  barque  for  his  personal 
navigation  failed  to  bring  conviction;  the  production  of  the 
"  Ring  "  caused  storms  of  bitter  discussion ;  when  in  "  Tris- 


36  OPERAS 

tan  and  Isolde  "  he  at  last  spoke  freely,  a  tempest  of  abuse 
broke  upon  his  head.  Now  this  and  his  incomparable  and 
only  comic  opera,  "  The  Mastersingers  "  (pleasantly  greeted 
by  the  critics  as  a  "monstrous  caterwauling")  are  reckoned 
as  his  masterpieces,  alongside  of  which  nothing  else  is 
worthy  to  stand. 

The  world  was  hard  to  reach  but  its  enthusiasm  was 
unbounded  when  it  at  last  looked  over  its  "  Chinese  wall  of 
prejudice."  So  entirely  has  it  accepted  the  teachings  of  the 
"  Musician  of  the  Future  "  that  it  amounts  to  a  regeneration 
of  the  lyric  drama.  The  present  day  opera  public  would 
not  tolerate  a  composer  who  did  not  make  an  honest  effort 
to  let  his  music  embody  the  poet's  thought.  There  is  no 
more  singing  of  such  belligerent  admonitions  as  "  Go !  or 
thy  blood  shall  quickly  flow  "  in  mellifluous  harmony  which 
might  well  be  painting  the  dreamy  loveliness  of  a  summer 
night.  Scarcely  a  work  that  has  been  written  since  his 
day  does  not  bear  traces  of  his  theories,  even  the  greatest 
profiting  by  his  example.  They  have  inspired  countless  vol- 
umes of  conjecture,  discussion,  and  laudation.  The  world 
is  willing  to  say  now  that  the  art  for  which  the  Nineteenth 
Century  will  doubtless  be  remembered  is  the  musical  and  dra- 
matic art  of  Richard  Wagner.  Truly,  "  He  doth  bestride 
the  narrow  world  like  a  Colossus." 

However,  some  there  are  who  have  been  Wagnerians 
who  have  apostatized,  and  some  who  look  askance  at  his 
"muddled  metaphysics,"  and  suspect  that  his  orchestration 
is  overpersistent.  Whether  he  is,  like  Shakespeare,  a  crea- 
ture great  enough  to  be  "  not  for  an  age,  but  for  all  time," 
or  instead  the  precursor  of  some  greater  one,  is  for  time  to 
tell 

One  of  the  most  virile  composers  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century  was  Giuseppe  Verdi,  a  man  of  long  life  and  activity 
and  of  growth  as  continual  as  Wagner's.  His  progress  was 
marked  by  four  periods  of  which  "  I  Lombardi "  and 
"  Emani  "  are  of  the  first ;  "  II  Trovatore  "  and  "  RIgoletto  " 
of  the  second ;  "  Aida  "  of  the  third  and  "  Otello  "  and  "  Fal- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  37 

staff"  of  the  fourth.  This  last,  his  masterpiece,  was  writ- 
ten at  eighty  years  of  age.  In  technique,  Verdi  may  show 
evidence  of  a  heritage  of  faults  received  from  his  immediate 
predecessors,  but  he  brought  to  ItaHan  opera  a  new  life  and 
vigor.  He  is  truly  national,  his  operas  frequently  reflecting 
political  conditions  and  invariably  being  unmistakably  Ital- 
ian. He  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  dramatic  composers, 
dealing  with  the  most  violent  human  passions  and  ever  with 
sincerity.  The  people  have  claimed  him  as  their  own,  which 
is  in  itself  a  sound  basis  for  distinction,  and  some  of  the 
elect  declare  that  his  last  two  works  are  the  best  existing 
models  of  the  lyric  drama,  not  excepting  those  of  Wagner. 

The  Golden  Age  of  grand  opera  was  followed  less  than 
a  generation  after  by  the  Golden  Age  of  operetta.  The 
chronicle  of  opera  buffa  in  France  and  Austria  was  adorned 
at  that  time  with  such  names  as  Jacques  Offenbach  (1819- 
1880),  Alexander  Lecocq  (1832-),  Johann  Strauss,  the 
waltz  king  (1804-1849),  Robert  Planquette  (1848-1903), 
Edmond  Audran  (1842-1901),  and  Franz  von  Suppe  (1820- 
1895),  while  in  England  Gilbert  and  Sullivan  were  writ- 
ing their  delightful  series  of  operettas.  The  dashing  Offen- 
bach brought  to  the  burlesque  unusual  dignity  by  bestowing 
upon  it  the  methods  of  the  serious  opera.  Rossini  called 
him  the  Mozart  of  the  Champs  Elysees.  His  immensely 
popular  works  are  not  always  models  of  propriety,  but  the 
Second  Empire  must  help  to  share  the  blame;  just  as  Rossini 
was  a  reflection  of  the  trivial  time  in  which  he  wrote. 

There  is  no  such  criticism  possible  for  the  Gilbert- 
Sullivan  creations,  those  most  satisfactory  fusions  of  libret- 
tist and  composer.  They  have  lost  nothing  in  humorous- 
ness  by  their  never-failing  refinement  and  good  taste. 
Messrs.  Sullivan  and  Gilbert  have  laughed  at  many  solemn 
institutions,  at  the  House  of  Lords,  the  navy,  the  army, 
and  the  police,  but  their  satire  never  has  wounded.  The 
world  owes  them  a  great  debt  for  the  laughter  which  their 
dainty  mock  heroics  have  inspired. 


38  OPERAS 

A  contemplation  ot  the  operatic  situation  today  is  not 
altogether  a  tragical  proceeding,  and  there  is  no  immediate 
necessity  for  hanging  the  harp  upon  the  willow  or  giving 
one's  self  up  to  jeremiads  whose  purport  is  that  "  Fair 
Daphne's  dead  and  music  is  no  more."  The  modern  school 
is  indeed  sturdy  enough  to  have  several  characteristics  of  its 
own.  It  has,  in  the  first  place,  declared  against  excessive 
length  in  operas.  It  also  has  taken  a  decided  trend  toward 
realism.  It  has  discarded  utterly  gods  and  mermaids,  ghosts 
and  dryads  as  sadly  out  of  date.  It  is  fond  of  painting  the 
homely  scenes  of  everyday  life,  and  finds  sufficient  material 
in  the  variegated  character  of  the  actual  world.  If  it  grows 
tired  of  squalor  or  seeks  the  glamour  of  another  age,  it  is 
still  realistic,  pinning  all  the  sounds  of  nature  to  its  score 
with  fairly  startling  effect. 

The  life  which  Verdi  brought  to  Italian  opera  was  not 
extinguished  at  his  death,  and  the  new  Italian  school  is 
interesting  and  picturesque.  Probably  the  strongest  of  its 
exponents  is  Giacomo  Puccini,  a  man  with  true  dramatic 
instinct  who  already  has  several  excellent  works  to  his  credit 
and  others  under  way,  if  report  be  true. 

In  this  respect  he  is  unlike  Pietro  Mascagni,  whose 
fortunes  were  made  in  a  day  and  whose  fame  still  rests 
almost  entirely  upon  his  fiery  "  Cavalleria  Rusticana."  Rug- 
giero  Leoncavallo,  of  "  I  Pagliacci  "  fame,  is  the  third  upon 
whom  Italy  chiefly  bases  her  operatic  pride.  Richard 
Strauss  of  Germany  disputes  with  Puccini  the  distinction  of 
being  the  most  gifted  and  scholarly  of  living  composers. 
More,  however,  than  his  contemporary  across  the  Alps  does 
he  exhibit  in  himself  the  modern  condition  of  the  youngest 
of  the  arts.  He  disdains  all  the  canons  of  the  past  and  has 
well  earned  his  title  of  musical  anarchist.  His  daring, 
accompanied  as  it  is  by  remarkable  genius,  has  made  him 
the  most  talked  of  composer  of  the  day.  Of  the  new  army 
of  tone-painters  he  is  the  most  imaginative  and  vivid.  The 
noise  made  by  his  admirers  and  detractors  is  weirdly  similar 
to  the  battle  cries  which  once  echoed  about  Richard  Wag- 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   OPERA  39 

ner.  Another  striking  German  figure  is  Engelbert  Humper- 
dinck,  whose  "  Hansel  and  Gretel,"  an  operatic  rendition  of 
a  nursery  tale,  not  only  has  attested  his  originality  but  has 
won  for  him  a  warm  affection  in  the  public  heart.  Siegfried 
Wagner,  composer  of  several  operas,  is  not  an  exception  to 
the  rule  that  famous  men  seldom  have  sons  who  in  any  way 
rival  them. 

The  glory  of  France  is  upheld  by  several  gifted  men. 
There  is  Jules  Massenet,  whose  subtle  orchestration  and 
sensuous  melody  disclose  the  hand  of  a  master;  Saint  Saens, 
whose  scholarly  activities  have  extended  over  a  period  of 
nearly  fifty  years;  Claude  Debussy  and  Alfred  Bruneau,  both 
names  of  importance,  while  Gustav  Charpentier,  whose  real- 
istic "  Louise  "  recently  set  the  world  to  talking,  is  perhaps 
the  most  promising  and  original  of  them  all. 

Michael  Glinka  (1804-1857),  first  and  greatest,  Anton 
Rubinstein  (1830-1894)  and  Peter  Hitch  Tschaikowsky 
(1840-1893)  are  the  most  important  names  to  be  considered 
in  connection  with  Russian  work  in  this  line,  while  Ignace 
Paderewski  represents  Polish  endeavor.  The  Russians  build 
upon  the  Weberian  foundation,  the  folksong,  and  Russian 
operas  are  in  consequence  distinctly  national. 

Music  in  America  has  been  almost  as  laggard  as  if  it 
had  never  lost  the  depression  incurred  under  the  frowns  of 
the  Puritans,  and  while,  at  last,  America  is  advancing  in 
other  musical  paths,  the  page  upon  which  her  operatic  his- 
tory is  to  be  written,  is  as  yet  almost  blank.  Since  Manuel 
Garcia  and  his  musical  family  gave  to  New  York  its  first 
season  of  grand  opera  in  1825,  the  country  has  enjoyed 
many  notable  performances,  and  has  given  many  distin- 
guished singers  to  the  operatic  stage.  But  her  composers 
are  conspicuous  by  reason  of  their  paucity,  America  has 
yet  to  give  a  thoroughly  adequate  grand  opera  to  the  world. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  not  too  optimistic  to  believe  that  her 
many  gifted  song  writers  are  harbingers  of  those  who  will 
arise  to  put  into  music  the  noble  sweep  of  American  plains, 
the   rugged  glory  of  her  mountains   and   cafions  and   the 


40  OPERAS 

unostentatious  patriotism  of  her  citizens,  while  her  whole- 
some delight  in  laughing  at  herself,  her  willingness  to  point 
out  her  own  weakness,  will  surely  give  rise  to  notable  comic 
opera. 

America  already  has  achieved  greater  success  in  light 
opera  than  in  its  more  serious  form.  There  is  cleverness  in 
the  music  of  Reginald  de  Koven,  of  Victor  Herbert,  of 
Sousa,  of  Julius  Eichberg  of  "  Doctor  of  Alcantara  "  fame, 
and  of  a  score  of  others.  The  land  has  been  swept  for  a 
number  of  years  by  a  perfect  simoom  of  so-called  musical 
comedy  which  fortunately  is  beginning  to  show  some  faint 
sign  of  abatement.  These  ephemeral  concoctions  require 
music,  but  the  quality  is  of  little  consequence.  Any  sort  of 
a  jolly  din  will  do  to  balance  the  boisterous  jokes,  and 
accompany  the  pirouettes  of  the  chorus.  One  who  can 
devise  anything  as  fantastic  as  the  coming  to  life  and  tune- 
fulness of  the  most  amazing  scarecrow  which  ever  distressed 
a  cornfield  is  greater  than  he  who  can  write  a  melody  which 
will  live  for  a  generation.  We  have  a  Mr.  George  Ade 
who  pokes  fun  at  national  institutions  and  typifies  a  pecul- 
iarly national  humor  quite  as  effectually  as  Mr.  Gilbert,  but 
Mr.  Ade  is  unfortunately  as  yet  a  Gilbert  without  a  Sulli- 
van. That  a  reaction  in  the  musical  taste  of  the  public  is 
sure  to  come  is  a  safe  prediction,  and  it  is  only  a  question 
of  time  until  something  better  will  be  demanded  for  divert- 
isement.  Light  music  has  as  great  a  mission  in  the  world 
as  serious,  and  mere  frivolity  is  the  better  for  a  little 
cleverness. 


THE  BEGGAR'S  OPERA 

The  opening  page  of  a  copy  of  the  book  of  this  work 
at  the  Lenox  Library  in  New  York  is  inscribed  as  follows: 
"  The  Beggar's  Opera  as  it  is  acted  at  the  Theatre  Royal 
in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  written  by  Mr,  John  Gay,  *  Nos 
haes  novissimus  esse  nihil. '  Marr.  With  the  overture  in 
score.  The  songs  and  the  basses,  (the  overture  and  basses 
compos'd  by  Dr.  Pepusch)  curiously  engraved  on  copper 
plates.  London.  Printed  for  John  Watts  at  the  printing 
office  in  Wild  Court  near  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields. 
M  D  C  C  X  X  I  X."  It  has  three  acts  and  was  first  presented 
at  the  Theatre  Royal  in  London  in  1728. 

THE  CAST. 

MEN:—  WOMEN:— 

Peachum  Mrs.  Peachum 

Lockit  Polly  Peachum 

Macheath  Lucy  Lockit 

Filch  Diana  Trapes 

Jemmy  Twitcher  Mrs.  Coaxer 

Crook-fingered  Jack  Dolly  Trull 

Wat  Dreary  Mrs.  Vixen 

Robin  of  Bagshot  Betty  Doxy 

Nimming  Ned  Jenny  Diver 

Harry   Paddington  Mrs.  Slammekin 

Mat  of  the  Mint  Sukey  Tawdry 

Ben  Budge  Molly  Brazen 
Beggar 
Player 
Constable,  drawer,  turnkey. 


42  OPERAS 

The  curtain  rises  upon  a  scene  in  Peachum's  house, 
where  that  gentleman  is  seen  sitting  at  a  table  with  a  large 
book  of  accounts  before  him.  The  business  of  Peachum,  we 
learn,  is  a  somewhat  questionable  one  as  he  traffics  in  the 
stolen  goods  which  he  receives  from  Macheath's  gang.  A 
favorite  agent,  Filch,  who  has  "  as  fine  a  hand  at  picking  a 
pocket  as  a  woman,  and  is  as  nimble  fingered  as  a  juggler  " 
enters  with  many  messages  from  Newgate  Prison,  where 
the  less  clever  who  have  been  caught  are  in  durance  vile. 
Mrs.  Peachum  soon  comes  in  to  voice  her  suspicion  that 
their  daughter  Polly  is  in  love  with  Captain  Macheath,  the 
leader  of  the  highwaymen.  Both  fond  parents  are  averse 
to  Polly's  marrying,  for  they  shrewdly  think  to  keep  her  as 
"  a  key  to  the  whole  gang."  There  follows  an  affectionate 
scene  between  Mrs.  Peachum  and  Filch,  who  comes  in  with 
his  loot  gathered  at  the  opera  where  he  had  been  posted  on 
the  previous  night.  It  consists  of  seven  handkerchiefs  and 
a  snuff-box  set  in  gold.  He  tells  sadly  of  a  fine  gold  watch 
he  might  also  have  secured  had  it  not  been  for  a  ridiculously 
deep  fob  which  resisted  his  tugging  so  effectually  that  he 
had  to  make  his  escape  under  a  coach.  By  means  of  some 
wheedling  and  a  glass  of  cordial,  Mrs.  Peachum  draws  from 
the  boy  the  information  that  Polly  is  already  married,  and 
when  that  young  lady  arrives  her  mother's  rage  is  at  once 
visited  upon  her  head. 

"  Why,  thou  foolish  jade,"  she  shrieks,  "  thou  wilt  be 
as  ill-used  and  as  much  neglected  as  if  thou  hadst  married 
a  Lord!" 

"  I  didn't  marry  him  (as  'tis  the  fashion)  coolly  and 
deliberately  for  honor  or  money,"  protests  Polly.  "  But  I 
love  him."  "Love  him!  worse  and  worse!  I  thought  the 
girl  had  been  better  bred !  Oh,  husband,  husband !  her  folly 
makes  me  mad ! "  and  the  overwrought  parent  faints  and 
can  be  restored  only  with  liberal  draughts  of  cordial 

Peachum,  having  relieved  his  anger  with  many  eloquent 
expressions,  now  begins  to  take  the  matter  more  philosoph- 
ically.    "A   rich   rogue   nowadays   is   fit  company   for   any 


THE   BEGGAR'S   OPERA  43 

gentleman,"  he  says  sagely.  Later  a  brilliant  idea  strikes 
him  and  he  imparts  it  to  Polly.  They  will  have  Macheath 
peached  at  the  next  sessions,  and  the  girl,  after  the  hanging, 
will  be  a  rich  widow.  This  magnificent  prospect  is  not 
alluring  to  the  young  wife  and  she  hastens  to  warn  her 
husband.  After  a  pretty  love-scene  they  part,  but  not  before 
Macheath  has  vowed :  "  Is  there  any  power,  any  force  that 
can  tear  me  from  thee?  You  might  sooner  tear  a  pension 
out  of  the  hands  of  a  courtier,  a  fee  from  a  lawyer,  a  pretty 
woman  from  a  looking-glass,  or  any  woman  from  quadrille, 
but  to  tear  me  from  thee  is  impossible." 

The  second  act  begins  in  a  tavern  near  Newgate,  where 
the  members  of  the  gang  are  making  merry  with  wine, 
brandy  and  tobacco.  As  they  depart  for  their  various 
stations  for  the  day,  Macheath  arrives  to  tell  Mat  of  his 
peril.  He  soon  sends  a  drawer  after  a  bevy  of  his  fair 
friends  and  forgets  his  trouble  while  dallying  with  them. 
Jenny  Diver,  the  most  demure  and  dangerous  of  the  lot, 
declares  that  she  must  and  will  have  a  kiss  to  give  her  wine 
zest,  and  they  all  take  him  about  the  neck,  signaling  for 
Peachum  and  the  Constable  who  rush  in  upon  him.  Mac- 
heath is  captured  and  is  ignominiously  escorted  to  Newgate 
in  deep  chagrin  at  having  been  decoyed  by  women. 

Macheath  is  visited  in  prison  by  Lucy  Lockit,  whose 
father  is  in  collusion  with  Peachum  in  preying  upon  him. 
Lucy  is  deeply  reproachful  for  his  failure  to  marry  her 
according  to  promise.  His  efforts  to  appease  her  are  ren- 
dered more  difficult  by  the  coming  of  the  sorrowful  Polly. 
The  two  women  then  express  their  jealousy  and  distrust  of 
each  other  in  no  measured  terms,  while  Macheath  voices 
the  famous  sentiment : 

How  happy  could  I  be  with  either. 

Were  t'other  dear  charmer  away. 

Polly  is  finally  dragged  away  by  her  father  and  Macheath 

assures   Lucy   that   no   one   else   has   any   claim   upon   him. 

She  consequently  resolves  to  save  him  and  steals  the  prison 


44  OPERAS 

keys  from  her  tipsy  father,  Macheath  promising  to  send  for 
her  as  soon  as  he  has  made  his  escape. 

The  third  act  is  also  played  at  Newgate.  Lockit  over- 
whelms his  daughter  with  reproaches  for  allowing  the 
prisoner  to  escape  and  she  steadfastly  denies  having  done 
so.  Peachum  and  Lockit,  though  occasionally  relapsing  into 
deep  suspicion  of  each  other,  plot  to  regain  their  hoped-for 
source  of  revenue  and,  with  the  aid  of  Mrs.  Diana  Trapes, 
trace  him  to  Mrs.  Coaxer's  establishment.  Again  Macheath 
is  immured  and  again  Polly  seeks  him.  Lucy  plots  to  do 
away  with  her  more  successful  rival  and  offers  her  ppison  in 
a  glass  of  strong  waters.  Polly  is  sufficiently  clever  to 
realize  that  this  sweetness  means  mischief  and  persistently 
refuses  the  proffered  hospitality.  The  unhappy  Macheath, 
who  finds  that  the  gang  have  betrayed  him  and  that  he  must 
now  believe  the  "  world  all  alike,"  is  sentenced  to  immediate 
execution  for  having  broken  prison  and  Lucy  and  Polly  bid 
him  an  emotional  farewell,  which  is  interrupted  by  the 
arrival  of  four  other  "  wives "  and  the  curtain  goes  down 
with  apparent  finality. 

The  Beggar  and  the  Player  come  out  for  a  little  con- 
ference and  decide  that  while  the  poetic  justice  is  perfect,  the 
catastrophe  is  manifestly  wrong,  as  an  opera  must  end 
happily.  So  the  Beggar  bids  the  rabble  cry  a  reprieve  and 
the  curtain  ascends.  When  everybody  has  danced  around 
Macheath  and  that  worthy  has  chosen  Polly  for  his  partner 
in  life  the  curtain  goes  down  again  on  a  gay  chorus  to  the 
tune  of  "Lumps  of  Pudding." 

The  Beggar's  Opera  enjoyed  one  of  the  most  stupendous 
successes  known  in  the  history  of  music.  Not  only  did  it 
take  the  town  at  its  first  performance,  but  it  held  the  stage 
with  little  interruption  for  over  a  century  in  spite  of  moralists 
and  critics.  It  was  the  beginning  of  the  ballad  operas  which 
have  since  been  extensively  cultivated  and  of  which  the 
Gilbert-Sullivan  works  are  shining  examples. 

The  songs  (at  least,  most  of  them),  written,  like  the 
dialogue,  by  John  Gay,  were  set  by  Pepusch  to  the  old  Scotch 


THE  BEGGAR'S  OPERA  45 

and  English  melodies  and  to  some  of  the  popular  music  of 
the  day.  There  were  in  all  sixty-nine  ballads,  set  to  such 
tunes  as  "  Britons  Strike  Home ;  "  "  Bonny  Dundee ;  "  The 
March  in  "Rinaldo;"  "All  on  a  Misty  Morning;"  "When 
First  I  Laid  Siege  to  Chloris ; "  and  "A  Lovely  Lass  to  a 
Friar  Came," 

The  opera  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  a  remark 
of  Dean  Swift's  that  "a  Newgate  pastoral  might  be  made  a 
pretty  thing."  The  dialogue,  unfortunately,  is  not  "  funny 
without  being  vulgar."  But  it  is  undeniably  witty,  and  is 
a  sharp  satire  directed  at  the  corrupt  practices  of  courtiers. 
Sings  Lockit,  no  doubt  glancing  slyly  at  the  boxes, 

When  you  censure  the  age 

Be  cautious  and  sage 

Lest  the  courtiers  offended  should  be. 

If  you  mention  vice  or  bribe 

'Tis  so  fit  to  all  the  tribe, 

Each  cries,  "  That  was  leveled  at  me." 

There  are  also  several  sly  thrusts  at  Italian  opera,  whose 
success  at  the  Haymarket  under  Handel's  management  was 
imperiled  by  this  formidable  rival. 

The  part  of  the  heroine,  Polly  Peachum,  made  famous 
Lavina  Fenton,  who  became  in  the  role  the  toast  of  London. 
She  afterward  became  the  Duchess  of  Bolton. 


ORPHEUS 

"  Orpheus,"  an  opera  in  three  acts,  the  libretto  by  the 
Italian  poet,  Raniero  di  Calzabigi,  and  the  music  by  Chris- 
toph  Willibald  Gluck,  was  first  produced  in  Vienna,  Oct.  5, 
1762. 

CHARACTERS. 

Orpheus. 

Eurydice. 

Love. 

Chorus. 

Shepherds  and  Shepherdesses. 

Furies  and  Demons. 

Heroes  and  Heroines  in  Hades. 

The  plot  follows  closely  the  classical  legend.  Eurydice, 
the  beloved  one  of  Orpheus,  at  the  sound  of  whose  lyre 
rocks  and  beasts  are  moved,  has  died  and  her  spirit  has  gone 
to  the  Elysian  fields.  The  opening  scene  shows  her  tomb  in 
a  valley,  where  Orpheus  has  come  to  perform  the  funeral 
rites.  Shepherds  and  shepherdesses  are  gathered  to  adorn 
the  tomb  with  flowers  and  are  moved  to  sympathetic  tears 
by  the  spectacle  of  the  husband's  unquenchable  grief.  He 
cries, 

My  Eurydice!     My  Eurydice! 
Lost  forever!     Hear  my  woe! 

while  Echo  grieving  with  him  answers  in  tones  reflecting 
his  anguish. 


48  OPERAS 

Even  the  gods  are  touched  by  the  misery  of  the  bereaved 
poet,  and  Jove  sends  Love  to  befriend  a  true  lover.  The 
messenger  brings  the  joyful  promise  that  Orpheus  may  bring 
Eurydice  back  from  the  nether  world,  if  while  on  his  progress 
with  her  he  refrains  from  looking  upon  her  face.  Unless, 
however,  he  resists  this  temptation  successfully,  she  will  be 
lost  to  him  forever.  Love  warns  him  of  many  trials  which 
will  beset  his  path,  but  the  end  being  such  as  it  is,  Orpheus 
recognizes  no  difficulty. 

He  descends  to  Hades  along  a  path  lined  with  furies  and 
demons,  who  raise  their  frightful  voices  calling  upon  Cerberus 
to  wake  and  kill  his  new  prey.  But  Orpheus  plays  upon 
his  lyre  with  so  divine  a  touch  that  these  creatures  are 
charmed,  so  that  they  not  only  allow  him  to  seek  the  veiled 
Eurydice  among  the  shades,  but  even  place  her  hand  in  his. 

Eurydice  is  enraptured  at  seeing  her  husband  again,  but 
she  has  been  happy  in  Elysium  and  is  at  first  reluctant  to  go. 
He  draws  her  on,  however,  through  the  flaming  passages 
which  lead  to  his  own  world,  assuring  her  passionately  of  his 
love  and  his  loneliness  without  her.  Waked  so  suddenly 
from  death,  she  is  "  worn  by  the  fever  of  terror  all  untold  " 
and  longs  for  one  reassuring  glance.  She  cannot  under- 
stand how  one  who  loves  can  keep  his  face  averted  so  coldly, 
and  she  tells  him  that  she  surely  will  die  if  he  does  not  look 
at  her.  In  a  fatal  moment,  he  gives  way  to  her  prayers  and 
reproaches,  turns  to  take  the  forbidden  glance,  and  is  horri- 
fied to  see  her  sink  back  lifeless.  He  is  about  to  destroy 
himself  when  Love  again  takes  pity  upon  him  and  transports 
him  to  the  Temple  of  Love,  where  Eurydice,  restored  to  life, 
is  awaiting  him.  Thus  the  opera,  thanks  to  the  theatrical 
demands  of  the  period,  has  a  happier  ending  than  the  legend. 

The  fact  that  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  has 
passed  since  Gluck  wrote  Orpheus  and  that  the  work  is 
universally  conceded  a  masterpiece,  is  proof  of  its  enduring 
beauty.  In  its  direct,  unaflfected  loveliness  as  compared  with 
the  intricacies  of  modern  opera,  it  has  been  likened  to  the 
Parthenon  beside  the  bewildering  detail  of  a  Gothic  cathedral. 


ORPHEUS  49 

It  is  the  oldest  opera  holding  a  place  in  present-day  reper- 
toire and  from  it  dates  the  beginning  of  operatic  reform. 

Unusually  beautiful  passages  are  the  chorus  at  Euryd- 
ice's  tomb,  "Ah!  in  our  still  and  mournful  meadow;"  and 
Orpheus'  plaint,  "  Dearest,  untimely  gone."  In  the  second 
act,  the  dramatic  effect  of  which  is  remarkable,  occurs  the 
chorus  of  furies,  through  whose  strains  continually  sounds 
the  barking  of  Cerberus ;  Eurydice's  song,  "  In  this  tranquil 
and  lovely  abode  of  the  blest,"  is  noteworthy;  also  the 
impassioned  duet  of  the  two  lovers  as  they  make  their 
perilous  way  through  Hades,  and  the  world-famous  lamen- 
tation of  Orpheus  at  his  second  loss  of  his  beloved  one, 
"I  have  lost  my  Eurydice"  ("Che  faro  senza  Euridici"). 


IPHIGENIE  EN  AULIDE 

"  Iphigenie  en  Aulide "  or  "  Iphigenia  in  Aulus,"  a 
grand  opera  in  three  acts  with  music  by  Christoph  WilHbald 
Gluck  and  text  by  Bailli  du  Rollet,  based  upon  the  tragedy 
of  Racine,  which,  in  turn,  was  founded  on  the  play  of 
Euripides,  was  produced  in  Paris  in  1774. 

CHARACTERS. 

Iphigenia,  daughter  of  Agamemnon. 

Clytemnestra,  queen  of  Agamemnon. 

First  Greek  Woman. 

Second  Greek  Woman. 

Third  Greek  Woman. 

A  woman  in  the  crowd. 

Achilles,  the  Grecian  Hero. 

A  Greek. 

Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenae. 

Calchas,  a  soothsayer. 

Patroclus,  friend  of  Achilles. 

Areas,  servant  to  Agamemnon. 

Chorus  of  Greeks,  women,  and  Thessalians. 

Because  Agamemnon  has  killed  a  stag  in  her  sacred 
grove,  the  haughty  Diana  sends  a  calm  which  detains  the 
Greeks  at  Aulis,  on  their  way  to  Troy.  They  go  to  Calchas, 
a  soothsayer,  and  demand  a  way  to  propitiate  the  goddess. 
He  tells  them  that  a  costly  sacrifice  will  be  required  and 
privately  tells  Agamemnon  that  Iphigenia,  his  daughter,  will 
be  the  victim,  entreating  him  at  the  same  time  to  submit  to 
the  will  of  the  gods. 


52  OPERAS 

When  the  opera  opens,  the  beautiful  Iphigenia,  whom 
the  Greeks  praise  as  fairer  than  the  three  goddesses  Paris 
saw  on  Mount  Ida,  is  on  her  way  from  Mycenae  to  AuHs 
to  be  married  to  Achilles.  She  is  accompanied  by  her 
mother,  Clytemnestra.  In  desperation,  her  father  sends  his 
servant  to  meet  them  and  to  tell  them  that  Achilles  is  faith- 
less and  is  about  to  take  another  bride,  hoping  thus  to  keep 
them  from  Aulis,  By  some  mischance,  they  fail  to  receive 
the  message.  They  arrive  and  are  received  with  joy  by  the 
Greeks.  Iphigenia  now  hears  for  the  first  time  that  Achilles 
is  untrue.  She  is  overcome  with  sorrow  and  urges  her 
mother  at  once  to  leave  Aulis  and  return  home.  Achilles, 
who,  in  reality,  adores  her,  comes  to  meet  her  and  receives 
a  cold  and  disdainful  reception.  He  asks  and  learns  the 
cause.  Although  his  high  honor  keenly  resents  the  sus- 
picion, he  denies  the  charge  of  faithlessness  with  much 
vehemence.  Iphigenia  is  persuaded  of  the  truth  and  is  happy 
for  a  while  in  her  regained  confidence  in  him. 

Agamemnon  orders  a  feast  to  be  prepared  presumably 
for  the  solemnization  of  the  nuptials.  Iphigenia's  mother 
comes  to  her  on  her  wedding  morning,  voicing  her  delight 
that  one  born  of  a  goddess  shall  call  her  mother  through  his 
troth  to  Iphigenia,  and  the  people  are  loud  in  their  praise 
and  congratulation.  Achilles  brings  his  beloved  friend 
Patroclus,  "  the  rival  of  his  fame  and  the  sharer  of  his 
glory,"  to  be  presented  to  his  bride. 

Areas,  who  well  knows  that  the  altar  has  been  erected 
with  a  design  far  different  than  the  plighting  of  two  loving 
hearts,  can  no  longer  keep  silence  and  reveals  everything. 
Iphigenia  retains  her  noble  bearing  even  at  this  crisis,  for  she 
believes  that  her  father  loves  her  but  that  he  is  in  the 
irresistible  clutch  of  fate.  The  mother,  however,  throws 
herself  at  Achilles'  feet  and  implores  him  to  protect  the 
victim  and  to  be  not  alone  spouse  to  her  but  father  as  well, 
since  she  has  none  worthy  the  name. 

Achilles  assures  her  that  he  will  defeat  the  purpose  of 
a  most  unnatural  parent,  and  in  no  measured  terms  upbraids 


IPHIGENIE  EN  AULIDE  53 

Agamemnon,  who  resents  his  interference  and  proceeds  with 
the  arrangements  for  the  sacrifice.  At  the  last  moment,  his 
paternal  tenderness  conquers  and  prevails  over  his  fear  of 
heaven.  He  will  keep  the  life  the  gods  have  required  even 
though  the  interests  of  Greece  be  abandoned.  Accordingly, 
he  sends  Areas  to  take  Iphigenia  and  Clytemnestra  away 
from  Aulis,  secretly  determining  to  die  in  his  daughter's 
place.  When  the  Greeks  learn  of  this  they  cry  indignantly 
that  the  goddess  must  be  obeyed  if  her  wrath  is  to  be 
appeased.  Iphigenia  is  willing  to  be  offered  and  begs 
Achilles  to  take  no  steps  for  her  deliverance,  but  to  let  her 
die  for  her  people.  The  mighty  Achilles,  however,  arises 
against  the  mob  and  just  as  they  are  about  to  fall  upon  him 
in  turn,  the  voice  of  Calchas  the  soothsayer  is  heard.  The 
gods  are  appeased  by  the  virtues  of  the  daughter,  the  tears  of 
the  mother  and  the  valor  and  might  of  Achilles.  The  mar- 
riage of  Achilles  and  Iphigenia  is  no  longer  delayed,  and  in 
their  union  the  Greeks  see  an  omen  of  their  future  victory 
and  renown. 

"  Iphigenia  in  Aulis "  is  an  advance  over  the  epoch- 
making  "  Orpheo,"  the  hearing  of  which  Rousseau  declared 
reconciled  him  to  existence.  The  material  contains  greater 
possibilities,  for  there  are  more  characters  and  more  states 
of  mind  to  be  portrayed,  while  the  supernatural  element  is 
almost  entirely  absent. 

Gluck's  genius  is  notably  apparent  in  the  overture, 
which  comes  to  no  complete  stop  in  the  stage  representa- 
tion, but  for  which,  in  order  to  make  it  available  for  concert 
purposes,  endings  have  been  contrived  by  Mozart,  Wagner 
and  others.  Passages  of  notable  beauty  in  the  opera  itself 
are:  Clytemnestra's  urging  of  Iphigenia  to  cast  Achilles 
from  her  heart,  "  Let  a  Noble  Courage  Incite  Thee ; " 
Agamemnon's  aria  after  his  scene  with  Achilles  when  he  is 
torn  between  love  for  his  daughter  and  fear  of  the  gods, 
"  O  Thou,  the  Best  of  All.  and  Dearest ;"  Iphigenia's  "  Fare- 
well ;  "  Achilles'  "  The  priest  shall  first  be  stricken  down," 


54  OPERAS. 

upon  hearing  which  "  soldiers  frequently  rose  from  their 
seats,  scarcely  able  to  refrain  from  rushing  on  the  stage;" 
the  chorus  of  the  Greeks,  "Almighty  gods,  give  ear ! "  and 
the  final  ballet 


IPHIGENIE  EN  TAURIDE 

"  Iphigenie  en  Tauride "  or  "  Iphigenia  in  Tauris,"  a 
grand  opera  in  four  acts,  with  score  by  Christoph  Willibald 
Gluck  and  text  by  Guillard,  was  produced  in  Paris  in  1779. 

CHARACTERS. 

Iphigenia,  daughter  of  Agamemnon. 

Diana,  a  goddess. 

First  Priestess  of  Diana's  temple. 

Second  Priestess  of  Diana's  temple. 

A  Greek  woman. 

Pylades,  friend  of  Orestes. 

Orestes,  brother  of  Iphigenia. 

An  attendant  of  Diana's  temple. 

Thoas,  King  of  Taurica. 

A  Scythian. 

Choruses  of  furies,  priestesses,  Greeks,   Scythians  and 
guards. 

"  Iphigenia  in  Tauris "  is  a  continuation  of  the  pre- 
ceding opera.  King  Agamemnon's  daughter  has  been  saved 
by  Diana  from  death  at  the  altar  of  Aulis,  where  her  father 
had  been  directed  to  slay  her.  The  relenting  goddess  has 
had  a  goat  substituted  as  the  sacrifice  and  Iphigenia  has 
afterward  been  carried  on  a  cloud  to  Tauris,  where  she  has 
been  made  high  priestess  to  the  Scythians.  It  is  an  uncon- 
genial lot  for  the  loving  Grecian  woman,  for  human  sacrifices 
are  required  at  her  hands.  The  only  circumstance  which 
has  sweetened  her  life  in  the  fifteen  years  of  her  residence 


56  OPERAS 

on  Tauris  has  been  her  abihty  occasionally  to  rescue  some 
stranger  from  death  upon  the  sacrificial  pile.  To  make  her 
misery  more  intense,  Iphigenia  is  visited  by  a  hideous  dream, 
m  which  she  sees  the  palace,  in  which  she  has  spent  her 
childhood,  overthrown  by  a  tempest;  her  father,  wounded 
unto  death,  fleeing  from  a  murderous  fury  who  proves  to  be 
her  mother,  and  she  herself  about  to  stab  her  brother  Orestes 
through  the  heart.  In  her  unhappiness  she  cries  aloud  to 
Diana, 

O  thou  that  once  my  life  didst  save. 
Take  back  thy  gift,  yea,  quickly  take  it. 

But  Diana,  instead,  sends  her  another  task  which  rends  her 
heart.  Thoas,  king  of  the  Scythians,  orders  her  to  sacrifice 
two  strangers  who  have  been  thrown  upon  his  shores,  the 
gods  having  warned  him  in  a  vision  that  his  life  would  be 
in  danger  should  either  of  them  escape.  Orestes  and 
Pylades,  who  have  come  to  Tauris  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
off  the  statue  of  Diana,  are  brought  in,  loaded  with  chains. 
Learning  that  they  are  her  countrymen,  Iphigenia 
determines  to  save  one  of  them  in  order  to  send  him  with 
messages  to  her  sister  Electra.  She  is  strangely  drawn  to 
save  Orestes  for  this  errand.  Little  does  she  fancy  that  he 
is  her  brother  who,  having  slain  their  mother  Clytemnestra, 
has  fled,  pursued  by  her  shade  and  its  attendant  furies. 
Orestes  tells  her  of  the  disaster  which  has  overtaken  her 
family  and  she  learns  with  horror  of  the  murder  of  her 
father  and  mother.  When  Iphigenia  tells  the  two  friends 
that  she  cannot  rescue  both,  each  pleads  piteously  that  the 
other  may  be  saved.  Orestes  argues  that  life  is  only  a 
burden  to  him  and  that  death  would  come  as  a  glorious  gift. 
Reluctantly,  she  complies  with  his  desires  and  sends  Pylades 
on  with  the  messages  to  her  sister.  Orestes  is  led  to  the 
altar.  Iphigenia  can  be  brought  to  lift  the  sacrificial  knife 
only  after  a  sharp  struggle  with  herself.  As  the  blood- 
thirsty mob  urge  her  to  strike,  Orestes  murmurs  in  her  ear, 
"Thus  once  didst  thou  perish  in  Aulis."  She  then  knows 
that  it  is  her  brother  she  is  about  to  put  to  death  and  refuses 


IPHIGENIE  EN   TAURIDE  '  57 

to  be  guilty  of  his  blood.  Thoas,  who  recently  has  learned 
that  the  priestess  has  allowed  Pylades  to  escape,  enters  in 
fury  and  declares  that  Iphigenia  and  Orestes  shall  perish 
together  on  the  altar.  But  the  doughty  Pylades,  who  has 
returned  with  an  army,  stabs  him  and  disperses  the  Scythians. 
Diana  now  appears  and  in  her  words  may  be  learned  the 
happy  denouement: — 

Be  still,  and  receive  my  eternal  decree. 

Scythians,  ye  shall  restore  to  the  Greeks  this  my  statue. 

All  too  long  have  ye,  in  this  your  savage  country, 

Grossly  defiled  my  altar  with  your  bloody  rites. 

Thou  shalt  henceforth  enjoy  my  favour,  Orestes. 

Thy  repentance  has  for  guilt  atoned. 

Mycenae  longs  for  thee,  take  thou  her  throne  in  peace 

And  take  Iphigenia.     To  her  country  restore  her! 

This  is  the  last  and  the  finest  of  the  grand  operas  of  Gluck. 
"  Here,"  to  quote  from  one  of  his  critics,  "  he  fuses  the 
two  elements  forever  at  war  in  his  earlier  operas  —  musical 
beauty  and  dramatic  truth." 

Among  the  strongest  passages  are  the  overture  depicting 
the  tempest;  Iphigenia's  recitative,  relating  her  dream;  her 
plea  to  Diana  to  slay  her,  "  O  thou  that  once  my  life  didst 
save ;  "  the  sombre  chorus  of  priestesses,  "  When  shall  our 
tears  ? "  Thoas'  expression  of  his  superstitious  fears ;  and 
the  aria  of  Orestes  abandoning  himself  to  grief,  "  Ye  who 
my  steps  pursue."  The  song  of  Pylades,  "  Thy  Faithful 
Friend,"  is  one  of  the  finest  passages  from  Gluck's  pen. 
Also  noteworthy  are  the  aria  following,  "  There  reignest 
calm  within  my  breast ;  "  the  chorus  of  furies,  "  Chastise  the 
wicked  doer ;  "  and  Iphigenia's  expression  of  grief  at  Orestes' 
recountal,  "  O  unhappy  Iphigenia !  "  In  Act  III  the  finest 
number  is  Pylades'  noble  expression  of  his  love  for  his 
friend,  "  Thou  purest,  highest  joy ; "  while  the  strongest 
passage  in  Act  IV  is  Iphigenia's  aria  calling  on  Diana  to 
nerve  her  hand,  "  I  with  trembling  invoke  thee." 


LE  NOZZE  DI  FIGARO 

"  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro  "  or  "  The  Marriage  of  Figaro," 
subtitled  "A  Day  of  Folly,"  an  opera  bouffe  in  four  acts, 
with  music  by  Mozart  and  text  by  Lorenza  da  Ponte,  was 
first  presented  at  the  National  Theatre,  Vienna,  May  1, 
1786.  It  is  founded  on  a  comedy  by  Beaumarchais  of  the 
same  name. 

CHARACTERS. 

Figaro  (the  Barber  of  Seville),  valet  to  the  Count. 

Count  Almaviva,  a  Spanish  Noble. 

Countess  Almaviva,  his  wife. 

Susanna,  maid  of  the  Countess,  betrothed  to  Figara 

Cherubino,  page  to  the  Countess. 

Marcellina,  servant  to  Bartolo. 

Bartolo,  a  rejected  lover  of  Susanna. 

Basilio,  a  busybody. 

Don  Curzio. 

Antonio,  gardener  to  the  Court. 

Servants,  country  people,  guards. 

This  opera,  though  written  previously,  is  in  a  sense  a 
continuation  of  Rossini's  "  Barber  of  Seville,"  the  principal 
characters  being  again  introduced.  The  gallant  Almaviva, 
with  the  assistance  of  Figaro,  has  married  his  adored  Rosina, 
but,  as  with  many  truly  loving  husbands,  marriage  has  not 
rendered  him  blind  to  other  tender  eyes  and  he  indulges  in 
an  occasional  flirtation.  Just  now,  the  particular  object  of 
his  fancy  is  Susanna,  the  coquettish  maid  of  his  wife,  the 


60  OPERAS 

opera  opening  on  the  day  arranged  for  her  marriage  to 
Figaro.  The  Countess  has  a  page,  Cherubino,  a  dainty 
youth  of  whom  she  is  fond  but  whom  she  regards  as  a  child. 
Cherubino,  however,  adores  his  mistress,  and  proves  a  facile 
instrument  of  punishment  for  the  Count.  Figaro,  of  course, 
assists  quite  willingly  in  the  plot.  To  get  rid  of  the  boy, 
the  Count  orders  him  to  enter  the  army,  but  the  women  save 
him  by  taking  him  to  the  Countess  and  dressing  him  at  the 
critical  moment  as  a  girl.  The  Count's  suspicions  have  been 
aroused  by  a  letter  from  Basilio  and,  when  he  demands 
admittance  to  his  wife's  room,  he  finds  the  door  locked  in 
his  face.  When  at  last  it  is  opened,  he  perceives  that  the 
Countess  is  much  confused  and  insists  upon  searching  the 
cabinet,  which  also  is  locked.  While  he  is  looking  about 
for  some  means  by  which  to  break  open  the  door,  Cherubino 
escapes  through  the  window  and  Susanna,  taking  his  place, 
gravely  confronts  the  angry  husband  when  the  lock  yields. 
In  a  few  moments,  Antonio,  the  gardener,  comes  to  complain 
of  the  ravages  done  to  his  flower  beds  by  some  one  who 
jumped  out  of  the  window.  Figaro,  who  has  arrived,  at 
once  declares  that  he  is  the  guilty  one;  that  he  had  been 
having  an  interview  with  Susanna  and  feared  the  Count's 
displeasure.  When  the  gardener  produces  further  evidence 
in  the  shape  of  a  document  which  proves  to  be  the  page's 
commission,  Figaro  glibly  explains  that  he  lost  it  from  his 
own  pocket,  the  page  having  entrusted  it  to  him  for  legal 
reasons. 

Bartolo  and  Marcellina,  who  have  been  previously  intro- 
duced to  sigh  for  unrequited  love,  the  former  for  Susanna 
and  the  latter  for  Figaro,  now  reappear.  Marcellina  brings 
with  her  a  marriage  contract,  which  she  says  Figaro  signed 
with  her.  She  produces  Bartolo  as  a  witness.  The  Count, 
glad  thus  to  dispose  of  Figaro,  his  rival,  and  to  leave  Susanna 
unmarried,  decrees  that  the  barber  must  fulfil  the  contract 
but  the  clever  Figaro  escapes  through  being  able  to  prove,  by 
marks  on  his  arm,   that  he   is  the  son  of  Marcellina  and 


LE  NOZZE  DI  FIGARO  61 

Rartolo.  While  he  is  embracing  his  new-found  mother, 
Susanna  appears  and  her  jealousy  is  aroused. 

The  ladies  do  not  consider  that  the  Count's  punishment 
is  yet  complete  and  so  arrange  a  nocturnal  meeting  in  the 
garden.  Susanna  summons  the  Count  by  letter,  while  the 
Countess  sends  for  Figaro.  They  disguise  themselves  by 
exchanging  apparel  and  each  meets  her  proper  lover.  The 
amorous  Cherubino  also  appears  on  the  scene  but  is  put  to 
flight  by  the  Count.  Meantime,  the  Count  makes  ardent  love 
'to  the  supposed  Susanna.  Figaro  sees  into  the  trick,  but  he 
pretends  that  he  believes  his  vis-a-vis  to  be  the  Countess  and 
so  declares  his  adoration,  thereby  arousing  the  maid's  jealousy 
to  such  a  pitch  that  she  is  restored  to  equanimity  only  by 
her  lover's  confession  that  he  knew  her  from  the  first. 

These  two  then  proceed  to  some  genuine  love-making, 
which  is  observed  by  the  Count,  who,  in  a  rage,  accosts  the 
lady  as  "  traitress."  He  orders  her  to  unveil,  and  when  a 
light  flashes  upon  the  scene  and  he  sees  that  he  has  been 
making  love  to  his  own  wife,  he  is  much  abashed.  Forgive- 
ness is  asked  and  granted  on  all  sides,  even  Cherubino  com- 
ing in  for  his  share.  The  marriage  of  Figaro  and  Susanna 
is  brought  about  and  the  capricious  Count  vows  eternal 
fidelity  to  his  wife. 

In  this  charming  work  Mozart  has  combined  the  highest 
characteristics  of  the  French  and  German  schools.  The  music 
is  a  model  of  grace,  lightness  and  beauty  and  its  effervescent 
fun  is  always  thoroughly  refined.  Cheerfulness  is  the  key- 
note of  the  composition,  for  in  "  The  Marriage  of  Figaro  '* 
Mozart's  laughter-loving  soul  seems  to  have  had  unbridled 
expression.  Although  more  than  a  century  has  passed  since 
its  composition,  it  still  holds  its  place  as  one  of  the  most 
admirable  of  operatic  works.  Time  seeming  to  smile  in 
sympathy  and  to  withhold  his  ravages.  It  was  written  in 
less  than  a  month  and  met  with  instant  success,  although  a 
short  time  later  it  was  discarded  in  Vienna,  owing  to  the 
machinations  of  Mozart's  Italian  rivals.  Next  to  "  Don 
Giovanni "  it  was  the  favorite  of  its  composer. 


62  OPERAS 

"  The  Marriage  of  Figaro  "  contains  such  an  embarrass- 
ment of  riches  that  it  is  difficult  to  particularize.  Among  its 
delights  are  the  strikingly  descriptive  overture;  Figaro's 
opening  duet  with  Susanna,  as  he  measures  off  the  floor  and 
she  tries  on  her  mistress'  hat  before  the  mirror;  Figaro's 
threat,  "  Se  vuol  ballare"  ("If  you're  for  dancing"),  sung 
to  a  guitar-like  accompaniment ;  Cherubino's  aria,  "  Non  so 
pidcosa  son"  ("Ah!  what  feelings  now  possess  me"); 
Figaro's  celebrated  number,  "  Non  piu  andrai "  ("  Play  no 
more");  the  Countess'  song,  "  Porgi  amor"  ("Love,  thou 
holy  impulse ")  ;  Cherubino's  romance  "  Voi  che  sapete " 
("  What  is  this  feeling  ")  ;  the  splendid  finale  to  the  second 
act;  the  regret  of  the  Countess,  "  Dove  sono!  "  ("  Where  are 
they");  the  "Letter  Duet"  of  Susanna  and  the  Countess 
and  Susanna's  "  Deh  vieni "  ("Ah!  why  so  long  delay?") 


DON  GIOVANNI 

"  Don  Giovanni,"  or  "  The  Libertine  Punished,"  an 
opera  buffa  in  two  acts,  with  music  by  Wolfgang  Amadeus 
Mozart,  and  words  by  Da  Ponte,  was  first  presented  in 
Prague,  Oct.  29,  1787. 

CHARACTERS. 

Don  Giovanni,  a  young  nobleman  of  dissolute  habits. 

Don  Octavio,  the  betrothed  of  Donna  Anna. 

Don    Pedro,    commander   of    the    Knights   of   the    Order   of 
Malta,  and  the  father  of  Donna  Anna. 

Masetto,  lover  of  Zerlina. 

Leporello,  servant  of  Don  Giovanni. 

Donna  Anna,  betrothed  to  Don  Octavio. 

Donna  Elvira,  a  lady  deserted  by  Don  Giovanni. 

Zerlina,  a  country  girl. 

Male   and   female   peasants,   musicians,   guests   and   servants. 

Don  Giovanni  is  a  licentious  nobleman  who  attempts  to 
seduce  and  carry  off  Donna  Anna,  the  daughter  of  Don 
Pedro,  the  governor,  a  man  held  in  great  honor  and  respect. 
The  father  forces  Don  Giovanni  to  a  duel  and,  in  the 
encounter,  meets  his  death.  Don  Giovanni  and  his  servant, 
Leporello,  who  shares  gleefully  in  his  master's  escapades, 
make  their  escape.  Donna  Elvira,  one  of  the  dissolute  Don's 
many  victims,  comes  to  reprove  him,  but  he  gaily  leaves  her 
to  Leporello,  who  entertains  her  with  a  list  of  his  master's 
successes  with  th^  fair  sex, 


64  OPERAS 

Don  Giovanni  now  amuses  himself  with  Zerlina,  a  hand- 
some peasant  girl  about  to  be  married  to  Masetto.  He  tells 
her  that  she  is  too  pretty  to  be  wasted  on  a  country  bump- 
kin. She  is  induced  to  enter  the  palace  with  the  libertine, 
while  Masetto,  filled  with  jealousy,  is  left  in  the  tender 
charge  of  Leporello,  who  has  orders  to  fill  the  wine-cup 
nimbly  for  the  purpose  of  intoxicating  the  distracted  fellow. 
Fortunately,  the  injured  Elvira  interrupts  Don  Giovanni  in 
the  exercise  of  his  boasted  arts  and,  revealing  his  perfidy, 
succeeds  in  saving  the  innocent  girl. 

Donna  Anna  and  her  adoring  lover,  who  has  sworn 
assistance  in  the  work  of  avenging  the  dead  commandant, 
arrive  at  the  palace  of  Don  Giovanni,  where  an  entertain- 
ment is  in  progress.  They  have  no  idea  that  he  is  the  mur- 
derer and  ask  his  aid,  which  he,  with  the  greatest  effrontery, 
assures  them.  Again  he  is  thwarted  by  Elvira,  who  tells 
them  all  the  truth.  The  festival  continues  and  Donna  Anna, 
Donna  Elvira  and  Don  Octavio  return  masked  and  are  wel- 
comed by  the  host.  When  the  opportunity  arrives,  Don 
Giovanni  again  approaches  Zerlina  but  she  is  rescued  from 
his  embraces  by  the  newcomers,  who  are  summoned  by  her 
cries. 

Don  Giovanni,  still  intent  upon  securing  Zerlina,  seeks 
Donna  Elvira's  house,  where  the  young  girl  has  been  con- 
cealed by  her  rescuers.  Leporello  imitates  his  master's  voice 
and  by  singing  a  serenade  entices  Donna  Elvira  to  come 
forth.  The  coast  being  clear,  Don  Giovanni  now  boldly 
enters  to  take  possession  of  Zerlina.  He  is  surprised,  how- 
ever, by  Masetto  and  his  friends  and,  thwarted  in  his  design, 
he  escapes  and  meets  Leporello  near  the  equestrian  statue  of 
the  murdered  governor,  newly  erected  in  the  cemetery.  To 
his  consternation  and  that  of  his  horrified  serving-man,  the 
statue  speaks,  warning  him  that,  before  the  morrow  is  over, 
he  shall  die.  Don  Giovanni  mockingly  proffers  an  invitation 
to  supper  and  the  statue  solemnly  nods  its  head  in  acceptance. 
The  next  night.  Donna  Elvira,  in  whose  heart  love  and  ven- 
geance  have   been    fighting    a     continual    duel,    seeks    and 


DON  GIOVANNI  65 

implores  the  Don  to  repent  of  his  follies  but  he  only  laughs 
and  she  leaves  him  despairingly. 

While  the  guests  are  assembling  for  supper,  the  statue 
arrives.  The  lights  flicker  and  grow  pale,  the  music  becomes 
nebulous  and  strange.  Don  Giovanni  recovers  his  equanimity 
with  an  effort  and  orders  a  place  to  be  laid  for  the  super- 
natural visitor,  who  holds  out  his  hand  to  him.  Three  times 
Don  Giovanni  grasps  the  cold  fingers  and  three  times  the 
statue  warns  him  to  repent.  Each  time  he  refuses  with 
bursts  of  drunken  laughter.  At  the  third  refusal  the  statue 
disappears,  the  earth  opens  and  the  demons  of  hell  appear 
to  carry  the  dissolute  nobleman  to  his  final  abode. 

"  Don  Giovanni  "  is  conceded  to  be  the  masterpiece  of 
Mozart.  Many  of  his  admirers  go  still  further  and  call  it 
the  greatest  opera  in  all  repertoire.  Undeniably,  it  remains 
the  greatest  work  of  its  kind  written  by  a  German  musician, 
and  certain  it  is  that  with  "  Don  Giovanni,  "  "  The  Mar- 
riage of  Figaro  "  and  "  The  Magic  Flute,  "  the  opera  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  attained  its  climax.  Fortunately,  the 
text,  although  unpleasant  in  subject  matter,  is  worthy  of 
association  with  such  inspired  music. 

The  work  is  fairly  teeming  with  famous  numbers,  most 
of  them  admirably  suited  for  use  on  the  concert  stage. 
Notable  in  the  score  are  Elvira's  plaintive  song,  "  Ah !  chi 
mi  dice  mai  "  ("Ah!  how  shall  I  discover");  Leporello's 
famous  "  Catalogue  Aria,"  containing  a  resume  of  his 
master's  amours ;  the  duet  of  Don  Giovanni  and  Zerlina,  "  La 
ci  darem  la  mano  "  ("  When  with  thy  hand  in  mine,  dear  ")  ; 
Elvira's  great  aria,  "  Mi  tradi  "  ("  Though  by  him  I've  been 
neglected");  Donna  Anna's  equally  notable  scena,  "Or  sai, 
chi  I'onore  "  ("  Thou  knowest  who  it  was  ")  ;  Don  Giovanni's 
dashing  drinking  song,  "Fin  ch'han  dal  vino"  ("Now  that 
they're  merry");  Zerlina's  charmingly  coquettish  song 
"  Batti,  batti  "  ("  Chide  me,  chide  me,  dear  Masetto  ")  ;  the 
"  mask "  trio  for  Donna  Elvira,  Donna  Anna  and  Don 
Octavio;  Don  Giovanni's  serenade,  "  Deh  vieni "  ("Come 
smiling  forth");  Zerlina's  beautiful  Vedrai,  carino  "  ("List 


66  OPERAS 

and  I'll  find  love  ") ;  the  great  tenor  song,  "  II  mio  tesore  " 
("  Go  then  my  love  entreating  ")  ;  and  Donna  Anna's  "  Non 
mi  dir"  ("Say  not  then"). 


DIE  ZAUBERFLOTE 

"  Die  Zauberflote  "  or  "  The  Magic  Flute,"  an  opera  in 
three  acts,  with  music  by  Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart,  and 
libretto  by  Emanuel  Schickaneder,  was  first  produced  in 
Vienna,  Sept,  30,  1791,  Mozart  directing.  The  text,  adapted 
from  a  tale  by  Wieland,  "  Lulu  or  the  Magic  Flute,"  is  in 
meaning  so  baffling  that,  like  Poe's  "  Raven,"  it  has  received 
a  thousand  interpretations.  It  has  in  it  considerable  matter 
which  can  be  taken  as  having  Masonic  significance,  while 
other  portions  are  merely  the  fantastic  factors  of  a  fairy 
opera.  The  book  was  arranged  by  Schickaneder,  a  dissi- 
pated theatrical  manager,  who  wished  a  work  in  which 
there  was  a  role  for  him  that  would  permit  him  to  wear  a 
suit  of  feathers.  He  conceived  the  character  of  Papageno 
and  succeeded  in  inducing  Mozart,  who  was  a  fellow  Mason, 
to  compose  the  music.  It  was  Mozart's  last  operatic  work 
and  was  written  a  few  months  before  his  death. 

CHARACTERS. 

Sarastro,  High  Priest 

The  Queen  of  Night. 

Pamina,  her  daughter. 

Tamino,  an  Oriental  Prince. 

Papageno. 

Papagena. 

Three  Ladies  of  the  Queen. 

The  Speaker.    Two  Priests.    Two  armed  men.    Three  Genii. 


68  OPERAS 

Monostatos,  chief  of  the  slaves. 

Chorus,  priests,  genii,  armed  men  and  slaves. 

The  scene  of  this  queer  and  disjointed  tale,  with  its 
puzzhng  allegory  and  its  absurd  characters,  is  laid  in  Egypt. 
The  Queen  of  the  Night,  whose  attributes  are  not  altogether 
worthy,  has  a  fair  and  virtuous  daughter,  Pamina,  who  has 
been  enticed  away  by  Sarastro,  a  priest  of  Isis,  who  wishes 
to  educate  her  in  the  ways  of  wisdom  and  understanding, 
while  removed  from  the  evil  influence  of  her  mother.  The 
Queen,  in  distress,  calls  upon  the  brave  prince,  Tamino,  who 
has  been  saved  by  her  attendants  from  a  serpent,  to  recover 
her  daughter  as  the  price  of  his  rescue.  As  he  is  about  to 
start  forth  gladly  upon  his  mission,  he  is  given  as  a  com- 
panion by  the  Queen's  attendants,  the  bird-catcher,  merry 
Papageno.  Papageno,  with  his  jolly  tricks  and  his  witty 
tongue,  furnishes  the  humorous  element  in  the  opera.  The 
two  knights  receive  presents  from  the  Queen.  The  prince  is 
given  a  magic  flute,  which  will  give  him  favor  and  power, 
while  the  buflFoon  receives  a  magical  instrument  constructed 
from  little  silver  bells,  the  sound  of  which  can  turn  wrath 
into  merriment. 

Meantime,  the  education  of  Pamina  is  not  proving  an 
unadulterated  joy  to  that  young  lady,  for  she  is  pursued  with 
declarations  of  love  by  the  negro  servant,  Monostatos.  Papa- 
geno has  the  happiness  to  deliver  her  from  these  frightful 
attentions,  the  victory  being  easy,  for  the  negro  flees,  thinking 
from  Papageno's  feathery  dress  that  the  bird-catcher  is  the 
devil  himself.  Tamino  goes  at  once  to  demand  an  audience 
with  the  high  priest  but  is  refused  admittance,  though  assured 
that  the  princess  is  safe  and  that  Sarastro  has  only  her 
benefit  in  mind.  With  lighter  heart  the  youth  begins  to  play 
on  his  magic  flute  and  Papageno's  bells  answer  in  the  dis- 
tance. Sarastro  now  appears  and  it  soon  develops  that  he  is 
planning  for  Tamino's  reformation  also.  The  youth  is  forced 
to  serve  a  term  as  novitiate,  and  at  last  is  worthy  to  be  initi- 
ated into  the  mysteries  of  Isis  but  not  before  both  he  and  the 
now  reconciled  Pamina  pass  through  the  various  stages  of 


DIE   ZAUBERFLOTE  69 

purification.  The  last  ordeal  consists  in  walking  through  the 
burning  lake  to  the  very  altar  itself,  their  progress  always 
encouraged  by  the  music  of  the  magic  flute. 

The  Queen  of  the  Night,  wroth  at  the  turn  affairs 
have  taken,  plots  revenge  against  Sarastro.  She  visits  her 
daughter  in  a  dream  and  gives  her  a  dagger,  which  she 
urges  her  to  use  to  slay  the  priest.  Failing  in  this  plan,  for 
Pamina  now  is  thoroughly  convinced  of  his  nobility,  the 
Queen  prevails  upon  the  negro  to  attempt  to  kill  him  but 
these  wicked  efforts  come  to  naught.  Finally,  when  Tamino 
and  Pamina  have  proved  themselves  worthy,  they  are  united 
and  even  Papageno  is  made  happy.  He  had  been  on  the 
verge  of  hanging  himself  for  loneliness  at  the  loss  of  his 
companion  but  when  reminded  of  his  bells,  he  shakes  them 
and  Papagena  appears,  a  feathery  bride,  the  counterpart  of 
himself.  The  gloomy  influence  of  the  evil  night  is  dissipated 
and  sunshine  and  happiness  reward  fidelity. 

"A  plot  so  hopeless  that,  after  the  first  few  scenes,  we 
give  it  up  in  despair;  an  atmosphere  of  magic  which  is 
merely  an  excuse  for  absurdities;  a  set  of  characters  who 
are  as  ineffectual  in  action  as  they  are  unaccountable  in 
motive;  a  bird-catcher  dressed  in  feathers  with  a  padlock  on 
his  lips;  a  goddess  from  the  machine  who  cuts  every  knot 
which  stupidity  could  tie:  such  was  the  harlequinade  which 
Schickaneder  handed  over  and  which  Mozart  has  turned  into 
a  living,  breathing  masterpiece.  As  we  listen  to  the  music, 
the  doggerel  verses  cease  to  annoy  us,  and,  most  wonderful 
of  all,  the  characters  grow  into  distinct  being  and  personality. 
The  magic  of  Tamino's  flute  has  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
composer  himself  and  before  it  all,  criticism  lies  powerless 
and  spellbound.  Indeed,  if  we  want  a  ready  measure  of 
Mozart's  genius,  we  have  but  to  read  this  libretto  and  remem- 
ber that,  after  witnessing  a  performance  of  the  opera,  Goethe 
seriously  proposed  to  supplement  it  with  a  second  part." 
This  is  the  verdict  of  Hadow  on  "  The  Magic  Flute,"  a  ver- 
dict which  the  rest  of  the  world  has  come  to  endorse. 


70  OPERAS 

The  overture  to  this  opera  is  one  of  Mozart's  finest 
instrumental  compositions.  Other  greatly  admired  numbers 
are  Papageno's  song  introducing  himself,  "  Der  Vogelfanger 
bin  ich  ja  "  ("  The  catcher  of  birds  am  I  ") ;  Tamino's  song, 
"  Dies  Bildness  ist  bezaubernd  schon "  ("  This  likeness  is 
most  wondrous  fair ") ;  the  first  aria  of  the  Queen  of 
Night,  "  O  zittre  nicht,  mein  lieber  Sohn  "  ("  O  falter  not, 
my  dearest  son  ") ;  the  padlock  quintet,  in  which  Papageno, 
who  has  been  punished  for  fibbing  and  prating,  hums  the 
melody  with  a  padlock  on  his  lips;  the  duet  of  Pamina  and 
Papageno,  "  Bei  Manner  welche  Hebe  fuhlen  "  ("  By  all  who 
know  the  joys  of  love  "),  which  appears  in  the  hymnal  to  the 
words,  "Serene  I  laid  me  down."  In  the  second  act  Saras- 
tro's  stately  invocation  in  the  temple,  **  O  Isis  und  Osiris  " 
("O  Isis  and  Osiris");  the  great  aria  of  the  Queen  of 
Night,  "Der  Holle  Rache  kocht "  (" 'Tis  Vengeance  I  now 
seek  "),  a  florid  passage  of  intense  difficulty;  Sarastro's  song, 
"  In  diesen  heil'gen  Hallen "  ("  Within  these  sacred 
temples  ")  ;  Papageno's  song,  in  which  he  accompanies  him- 
self with  his  chime  of  bells,  "  Ein  Madchen  oder  Weibchen  " 
("A  Maiden  or  a  Wife  ")  ;  and  the  nonsense  duet  of  Papa- 
geno and  his  new  partner,  "  Papapapageno,"  are  the  most 
striking  numbers. 


IL  MATRIMONIO  SEGRETO 

"  II  Matrimonio  Segreto,"  or  "  The  Clandestine  Mar- 
riage," a  comic  opera  in  two  acts,  with  music  by  Domenico 
Cimarosa  and  words  by  Bertati,  was  produced  in  Florence  in 
1792. 

CHARACTERS. 

Carolina,  younger  daughter  of  Geronimo. 

Fidalmo,  sister  of  Geronimo. 

Elisetta,  elder  daughter  of  Geronimo. 

Paolino,  clerk  to  Geronimo. 

Count  Robinson. 

Geronimo,  a  rich  merchant. 

The  scene  is  laid  near  London  in  the  house  of  Geronimo. 

Carolina,  the  fair  and  amiable  young  daughter  of  Grero- 
nimo,  has  for  the  past  two  months  been  secretly  married  to 
his  clerk,  Paolino,  a  worthy  youth.  Knowing  the  merchant's 
ambition  to  ally  himself  with  the  nobility,  they  are  fearful 
of  disclosing  their  secret,  although  it  weighs  heavily  upon 
both  of  them.  Paolino's  friend,  Count  Robinson,  expresses 
his  willingness  to  wed  any  well-portioned  maiden,  if  she 
can  match  his  rank  with  a  dowry  of  one  hundred  thousand 
crowns  and  Paolino  hopes  that  by  arranging  the  match  with 
Carolina's  elder  sister,  Elisetta,  he  will  gain  such  favor  for 
himself  that  forgiveness  will  be  easily  obtained  from  the 
father. 


72  OPERAS 

The  marriage  is  duly  agreed  upon,  much  to  the  frankly 
expressed  joy  of  Geronimo.  The  bride-to-be,  whose  disposi- 
tion is  far  from  amiable,  immediately  takes  on  great  afrs  and 
taunts  her  younger  sister  with  being  envious.  Embarrass- 
ments arise  when  Count  Robinson  comes  to  claim  his  fiancee 
and  declares  that  his  heart  will  inform  him  which  is  she. 
He  promptly  places  himself  beside  the  lovely  Carolina.  When 
told  of  his  mistake  he  next  chooses  her  aunt  Fidalmo,  a 
widow,  who  at  a  previous  moment  in  the  opera  has  coyly 
spoken  of  her  willingness  to  make  a  second  matrimonial 
venture. 

Great  is  his  disappointment  when  he  is  forced  to  the 
realization  that  his  fiancee  must  be  Elisetta.  In  fact,  he  will 
have  nothing  to  do  with  her.  Soon  a  way  out  of  the  matter 
occurs  to  him  and  he  suggests  it  to  Paolino.  It  is  that  the 
younger  sister  shall  be  substituted  and  the  dowry  cut  in 
half.  Of  course,  Paolino  is  aghast  at  this,  although  he  natu- 
rally finds  it  easy  to  understand  the  Count's  preference.  In 
the  meantime,  Count  Robinson's  conduct  towards  Elisetta 
is  discussed  and  it  is  agreed  that  "  even  to  a  wife  "  he  could 
not  have  behaved  worse.  Elisetta  discovers  him  trying  to 
make  love  to  Carolina  and  her  jealousy  leads  her  to  a  really 
disgraceful  scene,  the  noise  of  which  summons  the  appre- 
hensive father.  He  professes  great  indignation  at  the  treat- 
ment his  daughter  has  received  but  is  appeased  when  he 
hears  the  proposal  about  cutting  the  dowry  in  half.  He  says 
that  the  exchange  may  be  made  on  condition  that  the  fair 
Elisetta  agrees  to  it.  Whereupon  the  Count  sets  out  with 
the  avowed  intention  of  making  her  hate  him. 

Paolino  in  desperation  seeks  the  advice  of  Fidalmo  but 
this  lady  misunderstands  him  and,  thinking  that  he  is  making 
a  proposal  of  marriage  to  her,  she  accepts  him  at  once. 
Paolino  and  Carolina  plan  to  fly  by  night,  some  instant  course 
being  necessary,  especially  as  Fidalmo  and  Elisetta  have 
decided  that  the  offending  sister  must  be  banished  to  a  con- 
vent for  alienating  the  affections  of  the  Count.  Before  this 
escape  can  be   accomplished,   however,   Elisetta,   mad   with 


IL  MATRIMONIO  SEGRETO  73 

jealousy,  spies  upon  her  sister  and,  hearing  a  noise  in  her 
apartment,  makes  a  great  outcry,  calHng  out  that  the  count 
is  discovered.  That  gentleman  comes  to  his  own  door,  very 
sleepy  and  very  angry,  and  demands  an  apology.  Meantime, 
Paolino  and  Carolina  appear  and  make  their  long  delayed 
confession.  Geronimo  gives  way  to  fury  but  Count  Robinson 
comes  to  the  aid  of  the  young  couple  and  offers  to  marry 
Elisetta  if  it  will  do  anything  toward  restoring  peace.  The 
father  is  happy  again  and  the  curtain  goes  down  as  he  gives 
orders  for  a  wedding  as  showy  as  possible. 

This  work  is  a  masterpiece  of  its  kind  (the  buffo),  and 
retained  its  popularity  for  many  years.  It  was  received  with 
great  enthusiasm.  It  is  recorded  that  at  the  end  of  the 
first  performance  the  emperor  had  supper  served  to  the 
company  and  then  demanded  the  immediate  repetition  of  the 
work. 


LES  DEUX  JOURNEES 

"  Les  Deux  Journees,"  or  "  The  Two  Days,"  known  in 
Germany  as  "  The  Water  Carrier,"  an  opera  in  three  acts, 
with  music  by  Luigi  Cherubini,  and  text  by  Bouilly,  was  pro- 
duced in  Paris,  Jan.  16,  1800. 

CHARACTERS. 

Armand,  President  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris. 

Michael,  a  water  carrier. 

Daniel,  father  of  Michael. 

Anthony,  son  of  Michael. 

First  Officer. 

Second  Officer. 

First  Soldier. 

Second  Soldier. 

Constance,  wife  of  Armand. 

Marcelline,  daughter  of  Michael. 

Angeline,  daughter  of  Samos. 

Officers,  soldiers,  peasants,  village  girls. 

The  first  two  acts  take  place  in  Paris,  the  third  in  a 
village  called  Gonsse.    The  time  is  1647. 

Anthony,  the  son  of  a  Parisian  water  carrier,  is  to  be 
married  on  the  coming  day  to  Angeline,  the  daughter  of 
Samos,  a  wealthy  farmer.  He  is  receiving  the  congratula- 
tions of  his  friends  upon  the  approaching  event,  his  aged 
grandfather,  Daniel,  adding  his  voice  to  the  felicitations. 
Marcelline  is  despondent  about  marrying  as  advantageously  as 


76  OPERAS 

her  brother  but  he  reminds  her  that  he  was  as  poor  as  she 
and  tells  her  how  he  came  to  win  Angeline,  concluding 
ingenuously. 

A  kindly  deed,  an  honest  deed, 
Will  always  bring  its  recompense. 

Upon  Michael's  entrance,  we  learn  something  of  political 
matters.  Count  Armand,  president  of  the  council  and  a 
man  of  much  nobility  of  character,  is  being  persecuted  by 
Cardinal  Mazarin.  A  price  is  set  upon  his  head  and  the 
city  gates  are  watched  so  carefully  that  no  one  can  leave 
without  a  passport.  Armand  and  his  wife  Constance  seek 
refuge  at  the  water  carrier's  humble  home  and,  when  officers 
come  to  search  the  house  in  the  temporary  absence  of  his 
family,  Michael  passes  off  his  distinguished  visitors  as  his 
daughter  and  father  and  devises  a  plan  whereby  Constance 
can  escape  the  next  day  beyond  the  city  limits  with  Anthony 
when  he  goes  to  wed  Angeline  in  her  village  home.  The 
president's  escape  will  be  accomplished  in  some  other  fashion. 
Marcelline,  who  finds  that  she  will  be  deprived  of  attending 
her  brother's  wedding,  is  grievously  disappointed  but  exhibits 
a  spirit  of  unselfishness. 

It  is  the  second  of  the  two  days  in  question  when  the 
next  act  begins.  Constance  and  Anthony  experience  some 
difficulty  in  passing  the  strictly  guarded  gates,  for  the  de- 
scription of  Constance  in  the  passport  is  not  particularly 
apropos.  They  finally  appeal  to  one  of  the  officers  who  on 
the  night  before  searched  the  house,  and  he  is  forced  to 
admit  that  it  is  the  same  pretty  girl  he  saw  at  Michael's.  They 
are  followed  by  Michael  wheeling  his  cart,  upon  which  is  a 
barrel  decked  with  flowers,  for  it  is  the  festival  of  the  water 
carriers.  The  soldiers  remind  him  of  the  thousand  ducats 
oflFered  in  reward  for  Armand  and  he  listens  with  apparent 
avidity,  recounting  to  them  how,  at  break  of  day,  a  man 
accosted  him  and  offered  much  gold  in  exchange  for  his 
barrel  and  clothes.  The  description  of  the  man  agrees  with 
that  of  Armand  in  every  particular  and  having  aroused  great 
excitement,  Michael  goes  through  the  gates,  virtuously  wheel- 


LES  DEUX  JOURNfiES  17 

ing  his  barrel  in  which  the  President  of  the  Parliament  of 
Paris  is  taking  an  uncomfortable  ride. 

In  the  third  act,  the  bride  and  her  friends  are  anxiously 
waiting  the  arrival  of  the  delayed  bridegroom.  At  last 
Anthony  arrives  and  introduces  Constance  as  his  sister 
whom,  fortunately,  they  have  not  seen.  Michael  follows 
with  his  barrel  and  Armand  is  hastily  concealed  in  a  hollow 
tree.  Two  soldiers  are  billeted  upon  the  house  and  are 
greatly  taken  with  the  pretty  sister  of  Anthony. 

When  the  feasting  is  over,  the  soldiers,  who  have 
imbibed  too  freely,  come  out  to  sit  by  the  hollow  tree  where 
they  talk  over  the  charms  of  Constance.  When  she  appears 
with  food  and  drink  for  her  husband,  she  is  seized  by  the 
ruffians.  Armand  jumps  out  of  the  tree  to  defend  her.  The 
soldiers  study  his  appearance  with  suspicion,  which  is  con- 
firmed when  Constance,  restored  from  her  swoon,  breathes  his 
name.  He  is  about  to  surrender  himself  when  Michael  and 
Marcelline  arrive.  The  former  announces  that  Armand  has 
been  restored  to  power  and  favor.  The  nobleman  eloquently 
expresses  his  gratitude  and  all  ends  happily. 

"  The  Water  Carrier  "  has  had  its  share  of  recognition 
from  the  great.  It  is  said  that  Beethoven  kept  it  always  upon 
his  desk;  that  Mendelssohn  declared  it  gave  him  more 
pleasure  than  any  other  opera  and  that  Spohr,  upon  hearing 
it  for  the  first  time,  sat  up  the  rest  of  the  night  to  study  its 
score.  Prominent  numbers  are  Michael's  song,  "  Deh  so 
m'ascolti "  ("I  know  to  listen  ") ;  the  trio  of  Armand,  Con- 
stance and  Michael,  "  O  mio  Liberator  "  ("  True  Friend  and 
Liberator  ")  ;  the  duet  of  Armand  and  Constance,  in  which 
they  vow  to  share  each  other's  fate;  the  ensemble  of  the 
soldiers  with  Anthony  and  Constance,  and  the  wedding 
chorus,  "La  Pastorella "  ("The  Shepherdess"). 


FIDELIO 

"  Fidelio,"  or  "  Conjugal  Love,"  a  grand  opera  in  two 
acts,  with  music  by  Ludwig  van  Beethoven  and  a  libretto 
freely  adapted  by  Sonnleithner  from  the  French  of  Bouilly, 
was  first  given  to  the  public  in  Vienna  in  1805.  It  appeared 
at  an  unfavorable  time,  for  the  French  had  just  entered  the 
city,  while  Napoleon  was  at  Schonbrunn  and  more  serious 
problems  than  that  of  being  amused  were  occupying  the 
people.  In  addition,  it  received  a  most  inadequate  interpreta- 
tion and,  after  three  nights,  was  withdrawn  as  a  failure.  It 
was  revived,  however,  several  years  later  and  the  decision 
was  reversed.  The  opera  was  originally  in  three  acts  but 
proved  overlong  and  several  numbers  were  dropped. 

CHARACTERS. 

Don  Fernando  de  Zelva,  state  Minister, 

Don  Pizzaro,  Governor  of  the  State  Prison. 

Florestan,  an  imprisoned  Spanish  Nobleman. 

Leonore  (Fidelio),  his  wife. 

Rocco,  a  jailor. 

Marcelline,  his  daughter. 

Jacquino,  turnkey,  lover  of  Marcelline. 

Captain  and  Lieutenant  of  the  Guard,  prisoners  and  peasants. 

The  action  of  "  Fidelio  "  is  placed  in  Spain,  near  Seville, 
and  has  throughout  the  somber  setting  of  a  prison.  Flor- 
estan had  been  reckless  enough  to  censure  Don  Pizzaro  for 
some  cruel  deed  and,  cast  forthwith  by  the  tyrant  into  a 


80  OPERAS 

dungeon  to  starve,  is  already  reported  dead.  His  wife 
Leonore,  who  is  brave  and  faithful,  believes  that  he  is  still 
living  and  contrives  a  plan  to  save  him.  In  man's  attire  and 
calling  herself  Fidelio,  she  gains  an  entrance  to  the  fortress 
where  she  believes  Florestan  to  be  imprisoned  and  wins 
the  good-will  of  Rocco,  the  jailor.  She  is  even  more  suc- 
cessful with  his  daughter  Marcelline,  who  falls  in  love  with 
the  dainty  youth  to  the  neglect  of  her  own  lover,  Jacquino. 
At  last,  in  her  capacity  as  assistant  to  Rocco,  she  manages 
to  see  the  prisoners  when  they  take  the  air  in  the  court  and, 
greatly  to  her  dismay,  she  finds  that  Florestan  is  not  among 
them. 

Meanwhile,  the  wicked  Pizzaro  gets  a  letter  which 
apprises  him  that  Fernando,  the  minister  of  Seville,  will 
come  on  the  morrow  to  inspect  the  prison.  In  consternation 
at  the  thought  of  his  possible  discovery  of  the  starving  Flor- 
estan, he  decides  that  he  really  must  be  done  away  with. 
Rocco  is  obdurate  in  his  refusal  to  kill  Florestan  but  reluc- 
tantly consents  to  dig  the  grave  in  which  all  traces  of  the 
crime  are  to  be  hidden.  Rocco  confides  his  dread  secret  to 
Fidelio  and  accepts  her  offer  to  help  him  dig  the  grave. 
Pizzaro,  glad  to  have  the  work  hastened,  consents. 

In  the  second  act,  Rocco  and  Fidelio  find  Florestan 
chained  to  a  pillar,  wasted  to  a  shadow  and  fast  losing  his 
reason;  the  name  of  his  wife  constantly  recurring  in  his 
delirium.  Fidelio  gives  him  a  crust  of  bread  and  the  wine 
in  Rocco's  flask.  When  the  digging  of  the  grave  is  done, 
Rocco  sends  word  to  Pizzaro  and  bids  Fidelio  depart  but  she 
hides  behind  a  pillar,  resolved  at  the  worst  to  die  with  her 
husband.  Pizzaro  enters.  Intending  to  do  away  with  the 
witnesses  of  his  deed.  He  first  advances  to  stab  Florestan 
but  Fidelio  springs  forward,  runs  between  them  and  aims  a 
pistol  at  Pizzaro.  At  this  instant,  a  trumpet  announces  the 
arrival  of  Don  Fernando  and  Don  Pizzaro  is  forced  to  retreat 
bafi^ed. 

In  the  last  scene,  Don  Fernando  puts  a  number  of 
prisoners  at  liberty,  among  them  being  Florestan.     Pizzaro, 


FIDELIO  81 

disclosed  in  his  odiousness,  is  himself  imprisoned;  Florestan 
and  Fidelio  are  reunited;  Marcelline  recovers  from  her 
chagrin  and,  finding  she  still  loves  Jacquino,  consents  to 
marry  him.     So  all  ends  happily. 

"  Fidelio  "  is  Beethoven's  only  opera  and,  as  is  befitting 
the  work  of  the  greatest  of  composers,  is  imbued  with  high 
nobility  of  sentiment  and  melody.  It  is  equally  strong  both 
as  drama  and  as  opera,  and  although  the  words  of  the  text 
are  oftentimes  bourgeois,  Beethoven  treats  them  with  the 
same  dignity  he  would  have  bestowed  upon  Homeric  or 
Shakespearian  lines.  He  was  greatly  desirous  that  "  Fidelio  " 
should  be  a  fine  work  and  probably  no  opera  ever  had  more 
painstaking  treatment  in  its  creation.  It  is  intensely  melo- 
dramatic at  times  and  the  incident  in  the  prison  after  the 
trumpet-call  is  said  to  be  "  probably  the  most  overwhelming 
moment  of  sheer  unbridled  fury  in  all  opera." 

Confusion  through  the  opus-numbers  borne  has  arisen 
over  the  four  overtures  which  Beethoven  wrote  for  "  Fidelio." 
That  known  as  number  two  was  played  at  the  first  three 
performances  in  Vienna,  November  20,  21  and  22.  Number 
three  was  played  at  Vienna,  March  29  and  April  10,  1806. 
This  is  most  generally  admired.  Number  one  was  written 
for  a  proposed  production  at  Prague  in  1807,  which  did 
not  take  place.  Number  four  was  played  at  Vienna,  May 
26,  1814.  Among  the  famous  numbers  are  the  duet  of 
Rocco  and  Marcelline,  who  is  ironing  in  the  prison  court- 
yard ;  Marcelline's  "  Hope  "  aria ;  the  "  Canon  "  quartet  of 
Marcelline,  Leonore,  Rocco  and  Jacquino ;  the  "  Gold  "  song, 
sung  by  Rocco ;  Don  Pizzaro's  aria,  "  Ha !  Welch  ein  Augen- 
blick "  ("Ha!  what  a  moment;")  Fidelio's  impassioned 
recitative  and  aria  "  Abscheulicher ! "  ("Vile  monster, 
thou");  Florestan's  song  in  prison,  "In  des  Lebens.Friih- 
lingstagen  "  ("Life  was  still  so  fresh  and  joyful  "),  and  the 
rapturous  duet  of  Florestan  and  Leonore,  "  O  namenlose 
Freude  "  ("Oh!  joyful  day  "). 


IL  BARBIERE  DI  SIVIGLIA 

"  II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia,"  or  "  The  Barber  of  Seville," 
an  opera  buffa  in  two  acts,  with  text  by  Sterbini,  a  Roman 
poet,  founded  on  the  celebrated  trilogy  of  Beaumarchais, 
with  music  by  Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini,  was  first  pre- 
sented at  the  Argentina  Theatre  in  Rome,  Feb.  5,  1816. 
It  was  at  first  called  "  Almaviva,  or  the  Useless  Precau- 
tion "  to  distinguish  it  from  Paisiello's  "  Barber  of  Seville." 

CHARACTERS. 

Rosina. 

Doctor  Bartolo,  Rosina's  guardian. 

Basilio,  a  music  master. 

Bertha,  Rosina's  governess. 

Count  Almaviva. 

Figaro,  the  barber. 

Fiorello,  a  servant. 

A  Notary,  chorus  of  musicians,  chorus  of  soldiers. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Seville.  Count  Almaviva,  posing  as 
one  Lindoro,  is  seriously  in  love  with  Rosina.  As  frequently 
occurs  in  operas,  however,  her  guardian  wishes  to  marry  her 
himself.  She  is  watched  so  jealously  by  Bartolo  and  his 
friend,  Don  Basilio,  her  music  master,  that  for  some  time 
she  cannot  find  opportunity  to  bestow  as  much  as  a  smile 
upon  the  Count  in  reward  for  his  persistent  serenading. 
Finally,  she  manages  to  send  him  a  letter  confessing  that 
she  returns  his  love  and,  tired  of  being  watched  and  scolded, 


84  OPERAS 

she  is  entirely  disposed  to  break  her  chains.  Through  the 
good  offices  of  the  gay  and  clever  barber,  Figaro,  the  lover 
finally  secures  entrance  to  the  house  of  the  adored  one  in  the 
disguise  of  a  drunken  soldier  with  a  billet  of  quartering. 
His  elaborate  scheme  comes  to  naught,  however,  for  he  is 
arrested  by  the  guard.  A  second  time  he  gains  admittance 
as  a  music  teacher  who  has  come  to  take  the  place  of  the 
fever-stricken  Don  Basilio.  He  lights  upon  a  plan  whereby 
he  fancies  he  may  gain  Bartolo's  confidence.  He  shows  him 
Rosina's  letter  with  the  suggestion  that  she  be  told  that  it 
was  secured  from  a  mistress  of  the  Count  and  that  her 
cavalier  must  be  making  light  of  her,  if  he  is  passing  her 
letters  about  in  such  fashion.  He  himself  offers  to  carry 
out  this  suggestion  but  Don  Basilio  suddenly  appears  upon 
the  scene,  to  the  tremendous  confusion  of  the  plotting  lover. 
A  purse  of  gold  persuades  him  that  he  is  really  ill  and  he 
goes  home.  The  Count  follows  his  example  as  soon  as  he 
has  managed  to  plan  an  elopement  with  Rosina. 

The  letter  the  Count  was  to  have  shown  Rosina  has 
remained  in  Bartolo's  possession  and  he  seizes  the  first 
opportunity  to  show  it  to  her  and,  as  he  hoped,  it  rouses  her 
jealousy.  In  her  anger  and  disappointment,  she  discloses 
everything  and  promises  to  marry  Bartolo  instead  of  Lindoro. 
When  the  time  set  for  the  elopement  arrives,  the  bridegroom 
and  Figaro  appear  and  their  explanations,  chief  among  which 
is  the  fact  that  Count  Almaviva  and  Lindoro  are  one  and 
the  same,  are  so  satisfactory  that  a  reconciliation  is  easily 
effected  and  the  happy  lovers  are  united  by  a  notary,  just  as 
Bartolo  and  his  officers  come  to  arrest  the  Count.  Even  the 
fussy  old  doctor  concludes  to  make  the  best  of  things  and 
gives  them  his  blessing,  which  makes  it  possible  for  the 
curtain  to  descend  joyously. 

This  is  the  best  of  Rossini's  operas  in  lighter  vein  and 
it  has  become  an  established  favorite  with  all  nations.  In 
it  is  displayed  the  composer's  wonderful  melodic  genius.  Both 
words  and  music  are  so  admirably  paired  that  the  descrip- 
tion of  "  operatic  champagne "   which  has  been  applied  to 


IL   BARBIERE   DI    SIVIGLIA  85 

"  The  Barber "  is  undeniably  apt.  The  great  work  was 
written  in  a  fortnight  but  is,  notwithstanding,  elegant  and 
finished.  Its  first  performance  was  disconcerting  to  the  com- 
poser for,  nof  to  mention  a  ludicrous  chapter  of  mishaps, 
the  house  was  filled  with  Paisiello's  supporters,  who  gave 
vent  to  expressions  of  great  disfavor.  But  a  different  recep- 
tion was  forthcoming  upon  the  following  night  and  the 
world  still  does  homage  to  this  masterpiece  of  Rossini's. 

The  Count's  serenade,  sung  under  Rosina's  window, 
was  written  by  Rossini  between  the  first  and  second  perform- 
ance, Garcia  having  used  on  the  opening  night  a  Spanish 
air  of  his  own.  It  failed,  however,  and  the  charming  song 
"Ecco  ridente  il  cielo  "  ("Smiling  the  heavens"),  probably 
the  most  beautiful  song  in  the  opera,  was  then  composed. 
Other  notable  numbers  are:  Figaro's  celebrated  description 
of  his  duties,  the  Buffo  aria,  "Largo  al  factotum"  ("I'm 
the  Factotum ")  ;  Rosina's  cavatina,  "  Una  voce  poco  fa " 
(" 'Twas  a  voice  that  called  to  me");  and  Basilio's  great 
bass  solo,  the  "  Calumny  "  aria.  In  the  merry  music-lesson 
scene,  the  song  to  be  practised  by  Rosina  has  been  lost  and 
it  is  the  custom  of  every  prima  donna  to  interpolate  her  own 
particular  show  piece.  The  aria  "  Sempre  gridi  "  ("  Ever 
smiling"),  sung  by  the  duenna  Bertha,  is  termed  the  "aria 
di  Sorbetto "  because  of  the  Italian  custom  of  eating  ices 
during  its  singing.  The  famous  trio,  "  Zitti,  zitti,"  is  one  of 
the  elegant  ensembles  of  the  master  work  and  is  followed 
by  the  bright  finale  with  which  the  sparkling  opera  is  brought 
to  its  close. 


DER  FREISCHUTZ 

"Der  Freischiitz,"  or  "The  Freeshooter,"  a  romantic 
opera  in  two  acts,  with  words  by  Friedrich  Kind  and  music 
by  Carl  Maria  von  Weber,  was  first  produced  in  Berlin, 
June  18,  1821. 

CHARACTERS. 
Prince  Ottokar. 
Cuno,  the  head  ranger. 

C      \       (  ^'^^  young  foresters  serving  under  him. 

Kill  an,  a  rich  peasant. 
A  Hermit. 

Zamiel,  the  fiend  huntsman. 
Agnes,  Cuno's  daughter. 
Anna,  her  cousin. 

Chorus  of  Hunters,  peasants,  bridesmaids  and  invisible 
spirits. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Bohemia,  shortly  after  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  The  story  of  the  opera  is  founded  on  a  tradi- 
tion among  the  German  followers  of  Nimrod,  that  whoever 
chooses  to  seek  the  aid  of  Zamiel,  the  demon  huntsman, 
might  by  selling  his  soul  to  him,  receive  seven  magic  bullets 
which  would  hit  the  desired  mark  with  unerring  accuracy. 
If  he  succeeded  in  gaining  another  victim  for  Zamiel,  his 
own  time  of  life  would-  be  extended  but  if  he  failed  in  this, 
his  life  was  forfeited. 


88  OPERAS 

When  the  story  opens,  Cuno,  the  head  ranger  to  Otto- 
kar,  a  Bohemian  Prince,  has  promised  his  daughter  Agnes 
to  Max,  one  of  his  subordinates,  on  condition  that  he  win 
in  an  approaching  contest  of  marksmanship.  Caspar,  a 
second  forester  who  has  made  the  fatal  bargain  with  the 
fiend,  causes  Max,  who  always  has  been  a  skilled  marksman, 
to  shoot  poorly  at  a  preliminary  trial.  Jeered  at  by  his  com- 
panions and  hopeless  of  winning  his  adored  Agnes,  the  lover 
is  in  despair  and  believes  himself  deserted  by  heaven.  Caspar 
has  a  double  motive  in  wishing  Max's  downfall.  He  must 
bring  a  new  victim  to  the  fiend  and,  furthermore,  he  is  in 
love  with  Agnes,  whom  he  hopes  to  win.  To  tempt  his 
rival,  he  gives  him  his  rifle  and  bids  him  fire  at  an  eagle 
soaring  so  far  above  them  that  it  is  but  a  speck  in  the  sky. 
To  the  youth's  astonishment,  the  huge  bird  falls  dead  at  his 
feet,  while  demon  laughter  echoes  about  him.  Casper  plucks 
a  feather  and  puts  it  in  Max's  cap,  telling  him  to  think  of 
Agnes'  delight  in  his  prowess.  Max,  however,  recoils  when 
he  learns  the  nature  of  the  bullet,  but  Caspar  pictures  to  him 
the  sorrow  of  the  maiden  if  he  (Max)  fails  to  win  her  and, 
with  consummate  hypocrisy,  tries  to  convince  him  that  it  is 
his  duty  to  take  advantage  of  every  means  within  his  power. 
Finally,  Max  promises  to  meet  Caspar  in  the  Wolf's  Glen  at 
midnight  to  secure  a  new  supply  of  bullets.  The  exultant 
Caspar  believes  that  he  has  not  only  accomplished  the  down- 
fall of  Max  but  has  gained  for  himself  respite  from  the  fiend. 

The  second  act  opens  in  Cuno's  house,  where  Agnes  and 
Anna,  her  lively  cousin,  are  found,  the  former  lamenting  the 
fall  of  an  ancestral  portrait  from  the  wall,  which  she  fears 
to  be  an  evil  omen.  Only  a  few  hours  previously,  she  has 
met  a  peasant  in  the  wood  who  has  warned  her  of  some 
danger  and  has  given  her  a  magic  rose-wreath  with  which 
to  ward  it  oflF.  Max  comes  but  he,  too,  is  filled  with  fore- 
bodings and  his  heart  almost  stops  beating  when  he  learns 
that  the  portrait  fell  just  at  seven  o'clock,  the  time  he  shot 
the  eagle.  At  a  late  hour,  Max  goes  to  keep  his  tryst  in  the 
Wolf's  Glen,  though  implored  by  the  maidens  to  remain  with 


DER  FREISCHUTZ  89 

them.  Before  his  arrival,  Caspar  has  bargained  with  the 
Demon  and  has  bought  the  young  hunter's  destruction,  in 
return  for  which  he,  himself,  may  have  three  years  more  of 
life.  Six  of  the  bullets  shall  do  Max's  bidding  but  the 
seventh  shall  kill  his  bride.  When  Max  approaches,  the 
chorus  of  invisible  spirits  is  heard  no  more.  Zamiel  vanishes 
to  the  sound  of  low  thunder  and,  as  Caspar  blows  the  fire 
which  rises  out  of  the  ground,  the  birds  of  night  flutter 
weirdly  about  his  head. 

Suddenly,  Max  discerns  on  an  opposite  rock  his 
mother's  wraith,  raising  a  ghostly  hand  in  warning.  Fearing 
that  he  may  yet  lose  his  victim,  Caspar  calls  on  Zamiel  for 
help  and,  in  place  of  his  mother's  form  is  seen  that  of 
Agnes,  who  appears  distracted  and  is  about  to  throw  herself 
down  the  cascade.  This  silent  argument  settles  the  matter 
with  Max  and  he  hastens  to  assist  Caspar  in  melting  over  the 
fire  in  a  crucible  a  weird  decoction  out  of  which  the  bullets 
are  to  be  formed.  At  the  casting  of  the  seventh,  a  frightful 
storm  throws  Max  to  the  ground  and  Zamiel  seizes  his  hand. 

The  last  act  opens  like  its  predecessors  in  Cuno's  house, 
where  Agnes  is  dressing  for  her  wedding.  She  still  is  dis- 
traught and  tells  Anna  of  a  dream  in  which  she  fancied 
herself  a  white  dove  and  was  fired  at  by  her  lover.  As  the 
dove  fell  she  was  herself  again  and  a  great  bird  of  prey 
lay  dying  at  her  feet.  Her  cousin  attempts  to  divert  her 
thoughts  and  is  assisted  in  this  by  the  arrival  of  the  brides- 
maids. But  all  is  undone  when  the  newcomers  open  the 
box  which  is  to  contain  the  bride's  garland,  and  find  that  by 
mistake  a  funeral  wreath  has  been  sent.  Sadly  Agnes 
bethinks  her  of  the  peasant's  consecrated  roses  and,  wearing 
them,  she  goes  away  with  her  attendants  to  the  Prince's 
camp,  where  the  shooting  contest  is  to  be  held  and  where 
Max  is  to  win  her.  Only  the  seventh  bullet  remains  to  Max,  for 
three  of  them  Caspar  has  beguiled  from  him  and  three  others 
he  has  used  in  the  morning.  The  Prince,  who  has  witnessed 
his  three  marvelous  feats  of  marksmanship,  bids  him  to  be 
of  good  cheer  and  confidence  and,  pointing  out  a  white  dove. 


90  OPERAS 

gives  him  the  signal  to  fire.  The  shot  goes  wild  and  Caspar 
and  Agnes  both  sink  to  the  ground.  The  girl,  however,  is 
unhurt.  The  holy  roses  have  saved  her  but  the  bullet  flying 
past  her  has  buried  itself  in  Caspar's  heart  instead. 

When  they  have  borne  the  body  away,  Max  confesses 
that  his  three  shots  of  the  morning  were  of  malign  origin. 
The  indignant  sovereign  pronounces  upon  him  sentence  of 
banishment  but  moved  by  the  pleas  of  Agnes  and  Cuno,  he 
leaves  the  matter  to  the  decision  of  a  hermit,  who  justly 
proposes  that  in  view  of  his  past  uprightness  he  be  granted 
a  year  of  trial  and,  if  he  passes  it  successfully,  that  Agnes 
then  shall  become  his  bride. 

"  Der  Freischiitz  "  is  epoch-making  in  that  it  was  the 
opera  which  completed  the  establishing  of  the  romantic 
school,  and  which  gave  Germany  a  distinctively  national 
opera.  All  Germany  rose  to  acclaim  the  merit  and  charm 
of  the  work,  delighted  with  its  freshness  and  with  the  note 
of  romance  and  mystery  which  echoed  through  its  music. 
There  is  displayed  in  it  that  fine  imaginative  power  which 
Weber  possessed  in  high  degree.  The  great  scenes  are 
treated  with  a  dramatic  understanding  and  sympathy  not 
before  equaled.  The  music  of  the  Incantation  scene  is  of 
a  weirdness  and  daring  musical  power  until  then  unknown 
and  throughout  the  score  may  be  noticed  unmistakable 
evidence  of  the  leit-motif  used  later  with  notable  effect 
by  Weber's  great  successor,  admirer  and,  in  a  certain  measure^ 
disciple,  Wagner. 

Remarkable  passages  in  its  score  are  the  overture,  which 
is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  its  kind  and  is  known  and 
admired  the  world  over ;  the  stirring  hunting  choruses ;  Max's 
lovely  solos,  in  the  first  act,  "  Durch  die  Walder,  durch  die 
Auen"  ("Thro'  the  forests,  thro'  the  meadows");  "  Jetzt 
ist  wohl  ihr  Fenster  offen  "  ("Now.  methinks,  beside  her 
lattice");  Caspar's  demoniac  aria,  "Triumph!  die  Rache 
gehngt"  ("Revenge!  my  triumph  is  nigh");  Agatha's 
merry  "  Kommt  ein  schlanker  Bursch "  ("Let  a  gallant 
youth");   Agatha's   beautiful   recitative   and   aria,    "  Leise, 


DER  FREISCHt)TZ  91 

leise,   frome  Weise "    ("Softly   sighing");   the  Incantation 

scene;   the   Bridesmaids'   chorus;   the   Hunter's  chorus   and 
the  finale. 


SEMIRAMIDE 

"  Semiramide  "  is  a  tragic  opera  in  two  acts,  the  text 
by  Rossi,  and  the  music  by  Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini.  It 
IS  founded  on  Voltaire's  tragedy  "  Semiramis."  It  was  first 
presented  at  the  Fenice  Theatre,  Venice,  Feb.  3,  1823. 

CHARACTERS. 

Semiramis,  Queen  of  Babylon. 

Arsaces,  commander  in  the  Assyrian  army,  afterward 

Ninius  and  heir  to  the  throne. 
The  Ghost  of  Ninus. 
Oroe,  chief  of  the  Magi. 
Assur,  a  Prince  of  the  Blood  Royal. 
Azema,  Princess  of  the  Blood  Royal. 
Idrenus,  Mitranes,  and  others  of  the  royal  household. 
Magi,  guards,  satraps,  slaves. 

The  scene  of  the  story  is  laid  in  Babylon.  Ninus,  the 
king,  has  been  murdered  by  his  wife,  Semiramis,  aided  by 
Assur,  who  is  inspired  by  an  ambition  for  the  throne.  The 
opera  opens  in  the  temple  of  Belus  during  a  solemn  festival, 
which  is  of  unusual  significance  from  the  fact  that  Semiramis 
has  announced  her  intention  to  nominate  a  successor  to  the 
throne.  Arsaces,  a  young  Sythian  (as  it  is  supposed),  has 
just  come  back  from  war  crowned  with  victory  and  the 
Queen  becomes  secretly  infatuated  with  him.  It  is  on  this 
youth  that  she  has  resolved  to  confer  the  great  gift  within 
her  power,  although  Assur  confidently  expects  that  he  him- 


94  OPERAS 

self  will  be  chosen.  While  the  ceremonies  are  in  progress, 
a  violent  storm  arises,  the  temple  is  shaken  to  its  base  and  the 
sacred  fire  extinguished  upon  the  altars,  the  people  looking 
upon  this  as  an  evil  omen. 

Arsaces,  who  has  been  despatched  to  bring  an  answer 
from  the  Oracle,  arrives.  He  bears  a  casket  containing  a 
scroll  which  points  to  the  fact  that  the  late  king  was  mur- 
dered. The  Queen,  when  the  agitation  arising  from  this  has 
subsided,  announces  that  he  who  is  chosen  king  shall  also 
be  her  husband  and  thereupon  names  Arsaces.  This  news  is 
received  with  horror  by  at  least  four  persons.  One  of  these 
is  the  young  man  upon  whom  the  choice  falls,  for  he  loves 
and  is  beloved  by  Azema,  a  royal  princess;  another  is  the 
Princess  herself,  who  sees  the  Queen's  decree  ruin  her  hope 
of  happiness;  another  is  Assur,  who  also  has  aspired  to 
Azema's  hand  and  thought  to  gain  her  by  his  new  power 
and,  lastly,  the  priest  Oroe,  who  has  knowledge  of  a  fact 
which  would  make  such  a  union  frightful. 

Arsaces  pleads  that  another  be  chosen  since  "  the  throne 
is  not  the  glittering  prize  "  he  asks ;  Assur  in  a  passion  of 
rage  makes  many  dark  allusions  but  the  Queen  would  sweep 
all  obstacles  aside  and  orders  that  the  marriage  at  once  take 
place.  A  hollow  sound  is  heard  from  the  tomb  of  Ninus  and 
the  shade  of  the  murdered  king  comes  forth  to  say, 

Arsaces,  thou  shalt  reign; 

But  crimes  there  are  must  first  avenged  be. 

With  courage  into  my  tomb  descend. 

There  to  my  ashes  a  victim  thou  shalt  offer. 

There  is  general  consternation  and  the  Queen  flings  herself 
into  the  arms  of  Azema. 

Arsaces  follows  the  ghost  of  Ninus  into  his  gloomy 
abode  and  learns  that  Ninius,  his  son,  long  since  reported 
dead,  is  in  reality  alive.  In  consequence,  Arsaces  remon- 
strates with  the  priests  who  are  to  invest  him  with  the 
insignia  of  royal  office  but  his  arguments  are  silenced  by 
Oroe,  who  informs  him  that  he  is  the  lost  Ninius  and  thus 
the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne.     He  also  tells  him  of  the 


SEMIRAMIDE  95 

crime  of  Semiramis  and  Assur  and,  handing  him  his  father's 
sword,  bids  him  avenge  his  wrongs. 

This  he  is  wilHng  to  do  in  the  case  of  Assur  but  his 
heart  recoils  from  punishing  his  mother,  who,  still  ignorant 
of  their  relations,  continues  to  shower  her  now  disgusting 
attentions  upon  him.  Her  punishment  begins  when  Arsaces 
draws  from  his  robes  and  places  in  her  hands  a  document 
written  by  the  dying  king,  in  which  he  discloses  the  crime 
of  Semiramis  and  her  accomplice.  This,  coming  with  the 
knowledge  that  Arsaces  is  her  own  son,  fills  her  with  horror 
and  remorse.  The  young  man  assures  her  of  his  forgive- 
ness and  goes  forth  with  his  father's  sword  to  avenge  him, 
pursuing  Assur  into  the  recesses  of  the  tomb  itself.  The 
Queen  follows  unobserved  and,  when  he  is  about  to  stab 
Assur  in  the  darkness,  she  passes  between  them  and  receives 
the  weapon  in  her  heart.  Her  son  is  on  the  point  of  stab- 
bing himself  when  he  is  prevented  by  Oroe  and  Assur  is 
seized  by  the  guards  and  dragged  away  to  death. 

"  Semiramide  "  was  written  by  Rossini  in  less  than  three 
weeks.  When  it  was  first  presented  the  public  found  it 
"  German "  in  manner  and  its  composer  was  severely  cen- 
sured. Today,  it  seems  the  acme  of  Italianism  in  style,  and 
it  may  well  stand  as  the  climax  of  the  florid  school  of  operatic 
vocalization  which  flourished  in  the  day  of  Rossini  and  his 
contemporaries.  The  music  for  all  the  leading  characters  — 
bass  and  tenor,  as  well  as  contralto  and  soprano  —  fairly 
teems  with  ornaments,  roulades,  cadenzas  and  brilliant  pas- 
sage work.  There  is  probably  no  other  Italian  opera  score 
so  crowded  with  vocal  fireworks. 

The  opera  now  has  disappeared  almost  totally  from  the 
operatic  repertory  but  among  numbers  which  were  greatly 
admired  are  the  overture  and  the  Queen's  aria  "  Bel  Raggio  " 
("  Sweet  Ray  that  fills  my  soul  "),  both  of  which  have  occa- 
sional performance  still  in  public.  Arsaces'  cavatina,  "  Ah ! 
come  da  quel  di  "   ("Ah!  from  that  happy  day"),  his  aria 


96  OPERAS 

"Ah!  tu  gelar  mi  fai "  ("Ah!  my  soul  thou  freezest"); 
the  duets  for  Arsaces  and  Assur  and  two  for  Semiramide 
and  Arsaces  are  admirable  of  their  kind. 


EURYANTHE 

"  Euryanthe,"  a  romantic  opera  in  four  acts  with  music 
by  Carl  Maria  von  Weber  and  book  by  Mme.  Helmine  von 
Chezy,  based  upon  an  old  French  story,  was  produced  at 
the  Karnthnerthor  Theatre,  Vienna,  Oct.  25,  1823. 

CHARACTERS. 

King  Louis. 

Adolar,  Count  of  Nevers. 

Lysiart,  Count  of  Forest. 

Rudolph,  a  Knight. 

Euryanthe  of  Savoy. 

Eglantine  of  Puiset. 

Bertha, 

Ladies,  nobles,  knights,  hunters  and  peasants. 

Euryanthe  is  a  beautiful  maiden  who  is  betrothed  to 
Adolar,  Count  of  Nevers,  but  is  also  loved  by  another  young 
nobleman,  Lysiart,  Count  of  Forest.  At  a  royal  festival 
arranged  to  welcome  the  knight  from  the  battle-field,  Adolar 
celebrates  her  beauty,  purity  and  faithfulness  in  rapturous 
song.  Lysiart  mocks  his  panegyrics,  declaring  that  "  faith 
can  ne'er  in  woman's  heart  abide "  and  wagers  all  "  the 
fairest  of  his  father's  land  in  France "  that  he  can  win 
Euryanthe's  love.  Adolar  gladly  accepts  the  challenge, 
risking  all  his  wealth  upon  the  maiden's  fidelity.  Lysiart 
departs,  boasting  that  he  will  return  with  a  love-token. 


98  OPERAS 

In  the  second  scene,  Eglantine,  a  befriended  outcast, 
coaxes  a  secret  from  Euryanthe,  promising  with  extravagant 
expression  of  affection  never  to  reveal  it.  It  is  that  she 
communes  with  the  spirit  of  Emma,  Adolar's  sister,  who 
when  her  lover  Udo  fell  in  strife,  pressed  a  poisoned  ring 
to  her  lips.  She  has  told  how  the  gates  of  heaven  are  closed 
against  her  for  this  deed  and  how  they  never  will  be  opened 
until  the  ring  from  which  she  tasted  death  is  bathed  in  tears 
of  injured  innocence.  Eglantine,  who  is  in  love  with  Adolar, 
plans  to  use  Euryanthe's  secret  for  her  own  evil  purposes. 
Meantime  Lysiart  comes  with  many  fair  words  to  invite 
Euryanthe  to  grace  the  festival  of  King  Louis. 

In  Act  II,  we  find  Lysiart  bewailing  the  fact  that  he 
has  had  no  success  in  winning  the  favor  of  Euryanthe.  He 
is  inspired  with  fresh  hope  by  the  appearance  of  Eglantine, 
who  has  visited  the  tomb  to  steal  the  ring  from  the  dead 
hand  of  Emma  and  proposes  that  it  shall  be  used  as  a  proof, 
not  only  of  Euryanthe's  unfaithfulness  in  love  but  also  of  that 
of  which  she  is  really  guilty  —  the  revelation  of  the  secret 
known  only  to  her  and  Adolar.  For  thus  assisting  him  in  his 
designs,    Lysiart   promises   to   marry    Eglantine. 

Euryanthe  arrives  at  the  feast  and  is  warmly  greeted 
by  King  Louis  and  his  knights,  who  have  small  doubt  of  her 
trustworthiness.  Great  is  the  consternation  when  Lysiart 
announces  that  he  has  his  proof  and  produces  the  ring. 
Adolar  can  see  in  it  only  an  evidence  of  her  utter  perfidy 
and,  relinquishing  all  his  possessions,  declares  his  intention 
of  being  henceforth  a  wanderer. 

In  the  next  act,  Adolar  leads  Euryanthe  into  the  forest 
to  slay  her.  A  huge  serpent  confronts  them  and  Euryanthe 
tries  to  save  her  lover  by  throwing  herself  in  front  of  it. 
He  destroys  the  frightful  creature  and,  remembering  that 
Euryanthe  would  have  died  for  him,  refuses  now  to  kill 
her  but  leaves  her  alone  in  its  depths.  Here  the  huge  slain 
serpent  and  the  distracted  maiden  are  discoverd  by  the  king 
and  his  hunters.  In  answer  to  the  king's  questioning,  she 
relates  the  story  of  Eglantine's  perfidy.     He  is  convinced  of 


t:. 


EURYANTHE  99 

her  innocence  and  promises  that  she  shall  yet  be  united  to 
Adolar. 

Adolar  returns  to  Nevers,  where  he  meets  the  bridal 
procession  of  Lysiart  and  Eglantine  and  sees  the  ghost  of 
Emma  trying  to  indicate  to  him  his  mistake.  Here  also 
comes  the  king  to  inform  them  that  Euryanthe  has  perished 
of  a  broken  heart.  In  a  transport  of  triumph,  Eglantine 
confesses  the  incident  of  the  ring  as  well  as  her  love  for 
Adolar,  whereupon  Lysiart  stabs  her.  The  hunters  bring  in 
Euryanthe  restored  to  consciousness  and  the  lovers  are  united, 
while  justice  is  secured  by  the  consignment  of  Lysiart  to  the 
hangman. 

The  music  score  of  Euryanthe  contains  some  of  the 
most  beautiful  products  of  Weber's  genius  but  the  improb- 
able and  badly-constructed  libretto  prevented  the  opera  from 
finding  favor  when  it  was  first  presented  and  has  resulted  in 
its  complete  disappearance  from  the  operatic  repertory.  In 
the  concert-room  there  is  heard  ■  still  frequently,  however, 
the  ever-charming  overture  and,  occasionally,  Adolar's 
romanza,  "  Unter  bliihenden  Mandelbaiimen "  ("  'Neath 
the  boughs  of  flow'ring  Almond  ")  and  Lysiart's  recitative 
and  aria,  "Wo  berg  ich  mich  "  ("Where  can  I  hide"). 


LA  DAME  BLANCHE 

"La  Dame  Blanche"  or  "The  White  Lady,"  a  comic 
opera  in  three  acts,  was  first  presented  at  the  Opera  Comique, 
Paris,  Dec.  10,  1825.  Its  composer  is  Francois  Adrien 
Boieldieu,  and  the  book  by  Scribe  is  founded  upon  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  novels,  The  Monastery  and  Guy  Mannering. 

CHARACTERS. 

Anna,  ward  of  the  exiled  Laird. 
Gaveston,  dishonest  steward  of  the  castle. 
Macirton,  an  auctioneer,  the  creature  of  Gaveston. 
George    Brown,   lieutenant   in    the    English    army,   or 

Julius  of  Avenel. 
Dickson,  a  farmer,  friend  of  Anna. 
Jenny,  his  wife. 

Margaret,  the  old  nurse  of  Anna. 
Mountaineers,  peasants,  women. 

George  Brown,  a  young  English  officer  on  furlough, 
comes  to  Scotland  where  he  is  hospitably  received  by  Dick- 
son and  his  wife,  tenants  of  the  Laird  of  Avenel,  who  has 
been  exiled  for  his  loyalty  to  the  Stuarts.  Lieutenant  Brown 
wins  his  way  into  the  good  graces  of  his  host  and  hostess 
by  offering  to  act  as  godfather  at  the  christening  of  their 
youngest  child.  He  inquires  about  the  castle  and  finds  the 
Avenel  history  interesting.  Among  its  claims  to  considera* 
tion  is  the  possession  of  a  ghost,  "  The  White  Lady."  This 
spectral  dame  is  of  such  benevolent  nature  that  she  is  fairly 


102  OPERAS 

held  in  affection  by  the  villagers,  many  of  whom  claim 
actually  to  have  seen  her.  In  the  castle  there  is  also  a 
statue  called  after  her  and  it  is  in  this  statue  that  the  Laird 
concealed  his  treasure  when  he  went  away.  The  care  of  the 
castle  in  the  days  of  his  proscription  he  has  unwisely  entrusted 
to  his  steward,  Gaveston,  who  has  proved  most  unworthy. 

Gaveston  has  caused  the  Avenel  heir  to  vanish  mysteri- 
ously when  a  child  and  is  now  planning  to  bring  the  estate 
to  public  sale,  knowing  that  he  can  obtain  it  for  himself 
at  a  low  figure  on  account  of  its  ghostly  accessory.  Lord 
Avenel's  ward,  Anna,  an  attractive  girl,  has  been  assigned 
to  Gaveston  in  the  general  trust  and,  though  she  has  been 
required  by  him  occasionally  to  play  the  ghost,  she  is  not  in 
sympathy  with  him  in  his  schemes.  She  decided  to  frustrate 
the  plan  of  the  sale  and  sends  a  message  to  the  honest  Dick- 
son asking  him  to  come  to  the  castle  at  midnight.  His 
superstition  is  too  acute  to  allow  him  to  risk  such  an  inter- 
view but  Lieutenant  Brown,  who  is  ever  ready  for  an  adven- 
ture, offers  to  go  in  his  stead. 

Brown  meets  "  The  White  Lady "  and,  in  the  course 
of  the  interview,  she  discloses  to  him  Gaveston's  plans  and 
how  they  may  be  brought  to  naught.  She  soon  perceives 
that  her  guest  is  not  Dickson  but  a  young  officer  whom, 
when  wounded,  she  once  nursed  back  to  health  during  a 
sojourn  in  Germany.  Hinting  that  her  supernatural  powers 
make  it  possible  for  her  to  know  all  things,  she  refers  to  the 
incident  and  Brown  acknowledges  that  he  long  has  loved  his 
unknown  benefactress.  He  promises  to  make  the  Avenel 
cause  his  own  and,  in  reward,  receives  a  warm  hand  clasp 
from  his  ghostly  interlocutor. 

The  day  of  the  auction  comes.  The  penniless  Brown, 
who  has  had  instructions  from  the  White  Lady  to  outbid 
Gaveston,  keeps  the  figure  mounting.  Gaveston,  deeply 
chagrined,  gives  up  the  fight,  and  then  the  White  Lady 
conveniently  appears  and  pays  over  for  the  Lieutenant  the 
treasure  which  has  been  concealed  in  the  statue.  She  also 
furnishes  him  with  the  momentous  information  that  he  is 


LA  DAME  BLANCHE  103 

really  the  son  of  the  Laird  and  the  Countess.  Gaveston 
approaches  and,  in  a  rage,  tears  off  the  spectre's  veil,  revealing 
the  face  of  Anna.  The  Lieutenant  sees  in  her  the  playmate 
of  his  youth  and  the  charming  nurse  he  has  loved  so  long. 
Naturally,  the  opera  ends  with  a  wedding  in  immediate, 
prospect, 

"  The  White  Lady  "  is  considered  its  composer's  master- 
piece, and  is  today  firmly  placed  in  the  repertories  of  the 
French,  as  well  as  of  certain  of  the  German  opera  houses. 
Its  music  is  essentially  melodious  and  a  Scotch  flavor  lends 
charm  to  a  number  of  the  songs.  Prominent  in  the  score 
are  Brown's  solo  with  chorus,  "Ah,  what  pleasure  a  soldier 
to  be ;"  Jenny's  ballad  of  the  White  Lady,  "  Where  yon  trees 
your  eyes  discover;  "  the  trio  for  Brown,  Dickson  and  Jenny 
in  the  finale,  "  Heavens !  What  do  I  hear  ?  "  in  the  second 
act,  the  song  of  the  old  nurse  at  the  spinning-wheel,  "  Poor 
Margaret,  spin  away;"  Brown's  cavatina  in  the  castle  while 
waiting  for  the  spectre,  "  Come,  oh  gentle  lady ; "  Brown 
and  Anna's  duet,  "  From  these  halls ; "  the  skilfully  con- 
structed ensemble  for  the  peasants  and  tenants  at  the  auction, 
"All  our  fields  and  our  toils  neglected ;  "  in  the  third  act, 
Anna's  aria,  "  With  what  delight  I  behold  the  scenes  of  my 
childhood,"  and  the  stirring  chorus,  "  'Tis  the  lay  ever  sung 
by  the  clan  of  Avenel,"  a  slightly  Gallicized  version  of 
"  Robin  Adair." 


OBERON 

"  Oberon,"  or  "  The  Elf-King's  Oath,"  a  romantic  opera 
in  four  acts,  with  music  by  Carl  Maria  von  Weber  and 
words  by  J.  R.  Planche  was  first  produced  at  Covent  Garden, 
London,  April  12,  1826. 

CHARACTERS. 

Sir  Huon. 

Oberon,  king  of  the  fairies. 

Scherasmin,  Sir  Huon's  squire. 

Puck,  Oberon's  agent. 

The  Caliph  of  Bagdad. 

Prince  Babekan. 

A  Mermaid. 

Reiza,  the  Caliph's  daughter. 

Fatima,  her  companion. 

The  opera  opens  in  Oberon's  bower  in  Fairyland,  where 
a  chorus  of  genii  and  fairies  dance  about  his  sleeping  form. 
From  Puck's  conversation,  we  learn  that  Oberon  and  his 
wife  Titania  have  quarreled  over  the  relative  constancy  of 
man  and  woman,  and  have  vowed  never  to  have  anything  to 
do  with  each  other  until  some  couple  is  found  who  will 
remain  true  to  each  other  through  all  temptation.  The 
waking  Oberon  demands  of  Puck  where  he  has  been  since 
cock-crow  and  he  replies  that  he  has  been  around  the  world 
in  search  of  something  to  console  his  master  for  his  domestic 
infelicity.     At  Charlemagne's  court,  he  has  learned  that  the 


106  OPERAS 

sovereign's  son  has  viciously  attacked  Sir  Huon  of  Bor- 
deaux, by  whom  he  has  been  slain  in  single-handed  combat. 
All  France  considers  Sir  Huon  justified  but  Charlemagne, 
allowing  the  feelings  of  a  father  to  outweigh  justice,  will 
grant  him  his  life  only  on  condition  that  he  go  to  the  court 
of  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  slay  him  who  sits  upon  his  right 
hand  and  claim  the  Caliph's  daughter  as  his  bride.  Sir  Huon, 
accompanied  by  his  squire  Scherasmin,  has  already  started 
upon  his  perilous  errand. 

Oberon  orders  his  faithful  Puck  to  find  the  two  and 
bring  them  at  once  to  his  presence.  Soon  a  flowery  bank 
arises  and  on  it  are  seen  the  sleeping  forms  of  Sir  Huon 
and  his  squire.  The  ielf-king  shows  them  a  vision  of  Reiza, 
the  Caliph's  lovely  daughter,  promises  his  aid  in  the  coming 
trial  and  bestows  upon  the  young  man  a  magic  horn,  whose 
call  shall  summon  him  whenever  the  need  arises.  Then 
Oberon  waves  his  hand  and  they  are  transported  to  Bagdad, 
where  they  gaze  upon  the  foaming  river  and  the  glittering 
minarets  and  fear  to  breathe  lest  these  vanish  from  sis^ht. 
Before  the  act  closes,  we  are  granted  a  glimpse  of  Reiza  and 
her  companion  Fatima  and  learn  that  the  wedding  of  the 
princess  to  Prince  Babekan  is  set  for  the  morrow.  We  also 
learn  that  she  loathes  him  and  the  strength  of  the  distaste  is 
illustrated  when  she  half  draws  a  dagger  from  her  bosom 
whispering,  "  Love  or  death  shall  free  me."  She  also  in  a 
vision  has  seen  Huon  and  swears  to  wed  him  or  no  one. 

In  the  second  act,  we  are  taken  to  a  magnificent  salon  in 
the  Caliph's  palace  where  Prince  Babekan  is  seated  at  the 
Caliph's  right  hand.  The  Caliph  announces  that  the  hour 
marked  by  the  astrologers  for  the  marriage  has  arrived  and 
the  bridegroom  expresses  his  impatience  for  the  ceremony. 
At  her  father's  command,  the  unhappy  Reiza  and  her  maidens 
enter.  A  clashing  of  steel  is  heard  and  Sir  Huon  and  Scher- 
asmin rush  in  with  drawn  swords.  Sir  Huon  challenges  the 
boastful  Babekan  and  in  the  fight  the  prince  is  slain.  At  this 
crisis,  Sir  Huon  winds  his  horn,  the  elf-king  appears  and 
the  hero  and  Reiza  are  transported  to  the  seashore  where 


OBERON  107 

they  sail  for  Greece,  accompanied  by  Scherasmin  and  Fatima, 
whom  the  squire  has  prevailed  upon  to  accompany  him. 

In  the  third  act,  the  test  of  love  begins.  Puck  conjures 
up  a  storm  to  wreck  the  vessel  and  the  travelers  are  thrown 
upon  the  shore.  Huon  denounces  Oberon  and  upbraids  him- 
self as  the  cause  of  Reiza's  sufferings.  The  maiden  is  carried 
off  by  Abdallah  and  his  pirates  and  Sir  Huon  is  left  sense- 
less upon  the  ground.  Oberon  appears,  deploring  the  cruel 
fate  which  compels  him  to  make  his  instrument  suffer  so 
much.  He  entrances  him  and  leaves  Puck  to  guard  him  and 
bring  him  at  the  seventh  day  before  the  house  of  old  Ibrahim 
in  Tunis. 

The  fourth  act  commences  in  the  garden  of  Ibrahim, 
to  whom  Scherasmin  and  Fatima  have  been  sold  as  slaves. 
Puck  comes  with  Huon,  who  wakes  and  is  told  by  Fatima 
that  only  that  morning  Reiza  has  been  presented  to  the 
Emir  by  the  pirate  captain.  There  is  the  traditional  dis- 
pleasure in  the  harem  over  the  instating  of  a  new  favorite, 
and  Roshanna,  who  formerly  held  that  position,  thirsts  for 
revenge.  She  has  marked  Huon's  dejected  mien  and  fancies 
he  may  consent  to  be  an  accomplice,  so  she  summons  him 
before  her,  declares  her  love  and  proposes  that  he  slay  the 
Emir  and  share  the  throne  with  her.  Huon,  however, 
refuses  indignantly  and  declares  that  he  loves  another. 
Roshanna  then  sends  for  the  singing  and  dancing  girls  to 
fascinate  him  but  to  no  avail. 

He  is  endeavoring  to  force  his  way  out,  when  the  angry 
Emir  discovers  him  and  orders  him  to  be  burned  alive  within 
two  hours.  Reiza  flies  to  claim  the  victim  as  her  husband 
but  the  Emir  refuses  pardon  unless  she  will  smile  on  him 
instead.  She  refuses  and  her  execution  is  ordered  also. 
The  two  victims  are  already  bound  to  the  stake  when  Puck 
appears  and  winds  the  magic  horn.  At  its  tones,  the  Emir 
becomes  powerless  and  Sir  Huon  and  Reiza  are  set  free. 
Puck  blows  a  louder  blast  which  summons  Oberon  and 
Titania,  their  reconciliation  having  been  made  possible  by 
the  faithfulness  of  the  lovers.     Oberon  changes  the  scene  to 


108  OPERAS 

Charlemagne's  court,  where  Sir  Huon  explains  that  his  oath 
is  fulfilled.     He  is  then  forgiven  by  the  Emperor, 

The  overture  is  a  musical  reflection  of  the  story  and  is 
among  the  most  popular  and  best  known  of  Weber's  compo- 
sitions. Prominent  among  the  vocal  numbers  in  the  first 
act  are  the  fairy  chorus,  "  Light  as  fairy  feet  can  fall ;" 
Reiza's  air,  "  Oh,  why  art  thou  sleeping,  Sir  Huon  the 
brave;"  Huon's  songs,  "Deign,  fair  spirit,"  and  "Oh! 
'Tis  a  glorious  sight ;"  Reiza's  air,  "  Yes,  my  lord,  my  joy ;" 
the  duet  of  Reiza  and  Fatima,  "  Oh,  Happy  Maid "  and 
Reiza's  song,  "  Oh,  my  wild  exulting  soul." 

In  the  second  act,  the  duet  of  Reiza  and  Sir  Huon, 
taken  from  Euryanthe,  "Mine,  forever  mine;"  Fatima's  air, 
"A  Lonely  Arab  Maid ;"  the  popular  quartet,  "  Over  the 
Dark  Blue  Waters;"  Reiza's  splendid  apostrophe  to  the  sea, 
"  Ocean,  thou  mighty  monster  that  liest  curled,  like  a  green 
serpent  round  about  the  world  "  are  most  worthy  of  mention. 

In  the  third  and  fourth  acts  occur  Oberon's  song,  "  From 
Boyhood  Trained  in  Battlefield;"  the  Mermaid's  song, 
Fatima's  lovely  air,  "  Oh,  Araby,  Dear  Araby  "  and  Reiza's 
song,  "  Triumph  enchanting." 


MASANIELLO 

"Masaniello,  or  La  Muette  de  Portici "  ("The  Dumb 
Girl  of  Portici  "),  a  grand  opera  in  five  acts,  the  music  by 
Daniel  Auber  and  text  by  Scribe  and  Delavigne,  was  first 
presented  in  Paris,  Feb.  29,  1828. 

CHARACTERS. 

Alfonso  D'Arcos,  son  of  the  Viceroy  of  Naples. 

Lorenzo,  his  confidant. 

Selva,  an  officer  of  the  Viceroy's  guard. 

Masaniello,  a  fisherman  of  Naples. 

Pietro,  his  friend. 

Borella,     ")       _  . 

,,  y      fishermen. 

Moreno,     j 

Elvira,  a  Spanish  Princess  betrothed  to  Alfonso. 

A  maid  of  honor  of  the  Princess. 

Fenella,  a  dumb  girl,  Masaniello's  sister. 

Chorus  of  nobles,  ladies,  soldiers,  fishermen  and  peasants. 

This  Opera,  which  takes  its  tone  from  the  Neapolitan 
revolution  of  1647,  opens  with  one  of  the  charming  lighter 
scenes  which  form  a  happy  contrast  to  its  cumulating  tragedy. 
It  is  the  marriage  morn  of  Alfonso  and  Elvira  and  attendant 
festivities  are  in  progress.  They  are  interrupted  by  the 
entrance  of  the  dumb  girl,  Fenella,  who  runs  to  Elvira, 
imploring  her  protection  from  Selva,  who  has  kept  her  as 
the  viceroy's  prisoner  for  a  month.     She  has  escaped  and 


110  OPERAS 

she  tells  the  story  of  her  seduction  in  gestures,  showing  the 
scarf  which  her  unknown  betrayer  has  given  her.  All  of 
her  role  is,  of  course,  done  in  pantomime.  The  happy  Elvira 
promises  the  dumb  girl  her  protection  and  she  and  Alfonso 
enter  the  chapel  to  exchange  their  wedding  vows.  During 
the  ceremony,  Fenella  recognizes  the  bridegroom  as  her 
betrayer  and  attempts  to  warn  Elvira  but  is  prevented  by  the 
soldiers.  As  they  leave  the  chapel,  Fenella  denounces 
Alfonso  to  his  bride  and  then  flees,  the  act  closing  in  the 
midst  of  great  excitement  and  dismay. 

It  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  act  that  Masaniello 
makes  his  appearance.  This  scene  is  laid  upon  the  seashort, 
where  the  fisher-folk  are  busily  engaged  with  nets  and  boats. 
Masaniello  enters  moodily,  sorrowing  over  the  oppression  of 
the  people.  They,  seeing  their  hero,  ask  him  for  a  song  to 
lighten  their  labor.  As  he  is  singing,  Pietro  enters,  telling 
of  a  fruitless  search  for  Fenella,  about  whom  many  fears  are 
entertained.  At  this  instant  Masaniello  beholds  his  unfor- 
tunate sister  about  to  cast  herself  into  the  sea.  He  restrains 
her  and  in  his  arms  she  tells  the  story  of  her  wrongs,  con- 
cealing, however,  the  name  of  Alfonso,  whom  she  loves. 
Masaniello,  enraged,  swears  vengeance  and  calls  the  fishermen 
to  arms  against  the  despotic  sway  which  has  made  the  crime 
against  his  sister  possible. 

The  third  act  shifts  to  the  Neapolitan  market-place, 
where  the  fishermen  and  market-girls  are  disposing  of  their 
fish  and  fruit.  They  go  about  their  task  with  apparent 
gaiety  under  which  is  concealed  the  rising  fire  of  revolt. 
There  is  a  lively  chorus  and  a  picturesque  Neapolitan  taren- 
tella  is  danced  but  as  quickly  as  a  cloud  goes  over  the  sun, 
the  spirit  changes  to  one  of  foreboding.  Selva,  the  viceroy's 
officer,  discovers  Fenella  again  and  attempts  to  arrest  her. 
This  is  a  sign  for  a  general  uprising  and,  in  the  struggle,  the 
people  are  victorious. 

The  fourth  act  opens  in  Masaniello's  dwelling.  Fenella 
comes  from  the  town  and  describes  the  tumult  there.  Her 
recital  of  these  horrors  fills  Masaniello's   noble   and   gentle 


MASANIELLO  111 

soul  with  anguish.  Fatigued,  she  falls  asleep.  Pietro  comes 
to  tell  Masaniello  that  Alfonso  has  escaped.  He  attempts 
to  incite  his  smoldering  passions.  They  go  away  together 
but  scarcely  have  they  gone  when  Alfonso  and  Elvira  beg 
at  the  door  to  be  granted  a  hiding  within.  Fenella  admits 
them  and  Masaniello,  returning,  is  prevailed  upon  to  promise 
his  protection.  At  this  apparent  sign  of  weakness  Pietro 
and  his  fellow  conspirators  leave  him  in  disgust.  Mean- 
while, however,  the  magistrate  and  citizens  enter  and  present 
Masaniello  with  the  crown  and  he  is  proclaimed  King  of 
Naples. 

The  last  act  is  intense  in  its  tragedy  and  powerful  in  its 
musical  effect.  It  opens  with  Pietro  and  his  fellow  con- 
spirators stationed  before  the  viceroy's  palace,  with  the 
smoke  of  Vesuvius  rising  in  the  blue  distance.  Pietro  con- 
fides to  one  of  his  companions  that  he  has  administered 
poison  to  Masaniello  to  punish  him  for  his  treason  and  that 
he  will  be  king  for  only  a  day.  At  this  point  a  messenger 
brings  the  news  that  soldiers  are  marching  against  the  people 
and,  to  add  to  the  terror,  they  cry  out  that  Vesuvius  is  about 
to  burst  into  flames.  Added  to  this,  they  learn  that  Masa- 
niello to  whom  the  people  had  looked  to  save  them,  is  ill  unto 
death  and  half  bereft  of  reason.  He  comes,  however,  at 
their  request  but  in  disordered  dress,  reeling  and  delirious. 
Fenella  tries  to  quiet  him  but  he  turns  and  plunges  into  the 
conflict.  He  is  at  last  killed  by  his  own  comrades  while  in 
the  act  of  saving  Elvira's  life.  Fenella  places  Elvira's  hand 
in  Alfonso's,  rushes  to  the  terrace,  and  throws  herself  into 
the  molten  river  flowing  from  the  volcano. 

In  "  Masaniello,"  which  is  founded  in  part  on  actual 
incidents,  Auber  gains  a  height  which  he  never  reached 
before  or  after.  It  is  essentially  revolutionary  in  spirit  and 
has  at  all  times  taken  a  hold  upon  the  popular  imagination. 
The  riots  in  Brussels  directed  against  the  Dutch  as  well  as 
several  similar  uprisings  were  incited  by  it.  There  is  small 
wonder,  for  in  it  the  wildest  passion  of  popular  fury  has 
.sway.     "  Masaniello "   made   a   sensation   at    its   appearance 


112  OPERAS 

from  the  fact  that  it  was  the  first  realistic  drama  in  five 
acts  which  possessed  the  attributes  of  a  tragedy.  The  Ger- 
mans, in  particular,  had  always  considered  it  proper  to  send 
people  home  in  a  comfortable  frame  of  mind. 

The  prominent  number  in  Act  I  is  Elvira's  song 
expressive  of  her  happiness,  **  O  bel  Momento  "  ("  O  moment 
fair").  In  Act  II,  the  barcarole,  "  Piu  bello  sorse  il 
giorno  "  ("  More  fair  now  wakes  the  day  ")  is  best  known. 
In  Act  III,  the  prayer  of  the  fishermen  before  the  combat, 
"  Nume  del  Ciel  "  ("  Spirits  of  Heav'n  ")  is  taken  from  one 
of  Auber's  early  masses.  In  Act  IV,  Masaniello's  exquisite 
song  of  Sleep.  "  Scendi,  o  sonno  dal  ciel "  ("  Softly 
descending,  sweet  slumber"),  and  in  Act  V,  Pietro's  song  to 
guitar  accompaniment,  "  Ve'  come  il  vento  irato "  (" 'Tis 
like  the  rushing  wind ")  and  the  song  of  Masaniello's 
delirium,  in  which  the  half  remembered  notes  of  fishermen's 
songs  are  heard  are  worthy  of  mention. 


GUILLAUME  TELL 

"  Guillaume  Tell  "  or  "  William  Tell  "  is  a  grand  opera 
in  three  acts,  with  words  by  Etienne  Jouy,  Hippolyte  Bis  and 
Armand  Marast  and  music  by  Gioachino  Rossini.  It  is 
taken  from  Schiller's  drama  of  the  same  name  and  was  first 
presented  at  the  Academic  in  Paris,  Aug.  3,  1829.  Of  the 
fifty  or  more  operas  written  by  the  composer,  "  William 
Tell "  was  the  last.  It  has  been  much  changed  and  abbrevi- 
ated since  its  original  presentation,  which  required  six  hours. 

CHARACTERS. 

William  Tell,     "j 

Arnold,  v  Swiss  Patriots. 

Walter  Fiirst,     ) 

Melcthal,  Arnold's  father. 

Gessler,  Governor  of  Schwitz  and  Uri. 

Rudolph,  Captain  of  Gessler's  bodyguard. 

Ruodi,  a  fisherman. 

Leuthold,  a  shepherd. 

Matilda,  a  Princess  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg. 

Hedwiga,  Tell's  wife. 

Jemmy,  Tail's  son. 

Chorus  of  peasants  of  the  three  cantons,  pages  and 
ladies  of  the  train  of  Matilda,  hunters,  soldiers  and 
guards  of  Gessler,  three  brides  and  their  bridegrooms. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Switzerland  in  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury.    The  opera  opens  with  a  chorus  of  peasants  who  are 


114  OPERAS 

celebrating  a  wedding.  Tell  tries  to  join  in  the  gaiety  but  his 
heart  is  heavy  at  the  thought  of  the  Austrian  tyranny  which, 
in  the  hands  of  Gessler,  is  oppressing  the  land.  Arnold  von 
Melcthal,  son  of  an  old  Swiss  patriot,  is  in  love  with  Matilda, 
Princess  of  Hapsburg  and  daughter  of  Gessler.  He  has  saved 
her  life  and  stands  in  much  favor  with  the  lady.  Arnold 
resolves,  after  a  struggle,  to  be  true  to  his  country  and 
promises  Tell  to  help  him  in  the  campaign  of  liberation. 
The  news  that  one  of  the  followers  of  Gessler  has  attempted 
to  abduct  the  daughter  of  a  Swiss  herdsman,  Leuthold,  acts 
like  a  match  to  gunpowder  and  the  spirit  of  rebellion  is  no 
longer  slumbering.  The  herdsman  who  has  killed  the  ruffian 
flies  to  Tell  for  protection  and  the  fact  that  Tell  has  harbored 
him  arouses  the  anger  of  Gessler. 

A  great  conspiracy  takes  place  in  the  mountains,  the 
cantons  banding  together  under  Tell,  who  vows  to  lead  them 
either  to  victory  or  to  death.  Arnold  no  longer  falters  be- 
tween love  and  duty,  for  his  aged  father  has  been  put  to  death 
by  the  tyrant  on  the  charge  of  having  incited  the  people  to 
insurrection.  Gessler,  who  fears  the  conspiracy,  plans  a  test 
by  which  he  may  discover  the  loyal  as  distinguished  from 
the  malcontents.  He  puts  his  hat  on  a  pole  in  a  public  square 
at  Altdorf  and  corr^mands  everybody  to  do  homage  to  it. 
Naturally,  the  valiant  Tell  refuses  and  Gessler  devises  a 
most  ingenious  penalty.  He  orders  Tell  to  shoot  an  apple 
from  his  son's  head.  The  patriot  is  a  clever  archer  and 
successfully  accomplishes  this  without  injury  to  the  boy. 
As  he  is  about  to  depart,  Gessler  spies  another  arrow  con- 
cealed beneath  his  cloak  and  asks  its  object.  Tell  boldly 
answers  that  it  was  intended  for  Gessler  in  case  he  had  slain 
his  son.  For  this  frankness  he  is  thrown  into  prison. 
Matilda,  thoroughly  disgusted  with  her  father's  wanton 
cruelty,  abandons  him  and  swears  to  aid  in  the  rescue  of  Tell 
and  his  son.  Arnold  raises  a  band  of  followers  and  succeeds 
in  slaying  the  tyrant  and  freedom  is  gained  for  the  country. 
Tell  is  restored  to  his  family,  and  Arnold  and  Matilda  are 


GUILLAUME  TELL  115 

happily  united,  while  the  prayers  of  the  devout  and  thankful 
Swiss  ascend  to  heaven. 

"  William  Tell  "  is  unquestionably  Rossini's  masterpiece. 
It  has  high  dramatic  power  and  marked  beauty  of  melody, 
and  is  written  in  broad  and  serious  vein.  Its  orchestration, 
viewed  in  the  light  of  the  day  in  which  it  was  penned,  is 
admirable.  The  overture  is  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind  and 
ranks  easily  among  the  most  widely  popular  of  any  in  the 
entire  range  of  orchestral  literature.  The  libretto  is  weak, 
however,  the  story  not  being  well  developed  and  the  interest 
waning  after  the  second  act. 

The  opera  is  replete  with  numbers  which  may  be  desig- 
nated as  remarkable.  Among  them  are  the  quartet  between 
Tell,  Hedwiga,  Jemmy  and  a  fisherman;  the  dainty  ballet 
tunes  accompanying  the  appearance  of  the  bridal  couple;  in 
the  second  act,  the  duet  between  Arnold  and  Matilda; 
Matilda's  romanza,  "  Selva  opaco "  ("Shadowy  Wood- 
lands"); the  taking  of  the  oath  at  Rutli,  "La  glorie 
inflammi  "  ("  May  glory  our  hearts  ")  ;  the  chorus  at  the 
gatherings  of  the  cantons;  the  famous  scene  of  the  shooting 
of  the  apple,  "  Sois  immobile "  ("  Stand  motionless  ")  ; 
Arnold's  aria,  "O  muto  asil"  ("Oh!  bless'd  abode")  and 
the  final  "  Hymn  of  Freedom." 


FRA  DIAVOLO 

"  Fra  Diavolo  "  is  a  comic  opera  in  three  acts,  the  words 
by  Scribe  and  the  music  by  Daniel  Francois  Auber.  Its 
production  was  at  the  Opera  Comique,  Paris,  Jan.  28, 1830. 

CHARACTERS. 
Fra  Diavolo,  under  the  name  of  the  Marquis  of  San 

Marco. 
Lord  Rocburg  (Lord  Allcash),  an  English  traveler. 
Lady  Pamela  (Lady  Allcash),  his  wife. 
Lorenzo,  chief  of  the  carbineers. 
Matteo,  the  innkeeper. 
Zerlina,  his  daughter. 

Giacomo,  )  .  r  t?      t-»-       i 

T,  [■  companions  of  Fra  Diavolo. 

Peasants,  robbers,  carbineers. 

The  scene  of  the  first  act   is  laid  at  the  hostelry  of 

Matteo  at  Terracina  in  Italy,  the  English  tourists  making  a 

flurried   entrance,   for  the   reason  that   they  have  narrowly 

escaped  capture  and  robbery  at  the  hands  of  Fra  Diavolo's 

band.     Fra  Diavolo  is  the  celebrated  captain  of  a  band  of 

brigands  and  a  price  of  ten  thousand  piastres  is  upon  his  head. 

It  is  the  ambition  of  Lorenzo,  the  captain  of  the  carbineers, 

to  win  the  money.     His  greatest  incentive  lies  in  the  fact 

that  the  reward  would  enable  him  to  marry  Zerlina,  with 

whom  he  is  in  love.    Fra  Diavolo  who,  in  the  guise  of  the 

Marquis  of  San  Marco,  has  attached  himself  to  the  English 


118  OPERAS 

party  in  order  personally  to  inspect  their  progress,  now 
appears  upon  the  scene.  He  has  made  himself  particularly 
charming  to  Lady  Allcash  on  the  journey,  which  is  her  honey- 
moon, and  has  been  so  successful  in  fact  that  the  jealousy  of 
Lord  Allcash  has  been  aroused.  Naturally,  that  gentleman 
is  not  delighted  with  his  reappearance.  As  he  fears,  a 
desperate  flirtation  between  the  dashing  marquis  and  his  bride 
ensues.  As  the  marquis  sings  a  tender  barcarole  to  the  lady, 
he  makes  an  inventory  of  her  jewels  and  is  grieved  to  dis- 
cover that  his  band  has  not  been  successful  in  eflfecting  a 
wholesale  capture  of  the  Allcash  valuables.  But  Fra  Diavolo 
is  a  gentleman  of  resources  and  he  plans  to  remedy  this 
oversight  on  his  own  account.  The  first  act  ends  with  his 
escape  from  the  inn,  just  as  the  carbineers  under  Lorenzo 
enter  in  search  of  him. 

The  second  act  is  set  in  the  sleeping  apartment  of  Zer- 
lina.  The  fair  daughter  of  the  innkeeper  first  lights  the 
English  guests  to  their  rooms.  During  her  absence,  Fra 
Diavolo,  who  already  is  concealed  behind  the  curtains,  admits 
his  comrades,  Beppo  and  Giacomo.  They  shut  themselves 
m  the  closet.  Zerlina  re-enters,  prays  to  the  Holy  Virgin 
for  protection  and  goes  to  rest.  The  robbers,  thinking  her 
asleep,  begin  operations  and  partially  rouse  her.  It  has  been 
a  detail  of  the  plot  to  stab  Zerlina  but  her  prayers  and  her 
helplessness  touch  their  hearts;  their  arms  fall  harmless  as 
they  gaze  upon  her  innocent  face  and  they  decide  to  delay 
the  deed.  The  return  of  Lorenzo  and  his  men  again  arrests 
their  work  and  rouses  the  house.  Lord  and  Lady  Allcash 
rush  in  to  discover  the  cause  of  the  uproar,  followed  by 
Lorenzo  to  reassure  Zerlina.  Fra  Diavolo,  realizing  that  his 
discovery  is  imminent,  hits  upon  the  despicable  plan  of 
coming  boldly  forth  and  declaring  that  he  was  there  for  a 
rendezvous  with  Zerlina.  At  the  same  time,  he  whispers  to 
the  Englishman  that  he  has  come  by  appointment  with  Lady 
Pamela  and  to  clinch  the  evidence  shows  him  her  portrait 
which  he  has  appropriated  the  day  before.  Lorenzo  chal- 
lenges him  and  Fra  Diavolo,  promising  to  meet  him  in  the 


FRA  DIAVOLO  119 

morning,  coolly  makes  his  escape.  One  of  his  companion 
banditti  is  not  so  lucky  and  is  captured.  To  gain  his  own 
liberty,  he  agrees  to  betray  the  leader. 

In  the  third  act,  we  find  Fra  Diavolo  exulting  in  the 
freedom  of  his  native  mountains  and  looking  forward  with 
gusto  to  the  completion  of  his  confiscation  of  the  Allcash 
property.  He  appears  no  longer  in  the  staid  attire  of  a 
marquis  but  as  captain  of  banditti,  with  a  red  feather  waving 
from  his  bonnet.  A  band  of  villagers  in  holiday  attire 
enters,  singing  a  chorus  in  celebration  of  the  approaching 
marriage  of  Zerlina.  Lorenzo,  who  has  had  it  proved  to  his 
satisfaction  that  Zerlina  is  mnocent  of  Fra  Diavolo's  imputa- 
tions, uses  as  snares,  Beppo  and  Giacomo,  who  are  in  his 
power.  The  chief  of  the  bandits  is  captured  and  led  away 
to  punishment  by  the  carbineers.  Zerlina  is  restored  to  her 
true  lover  and  the  opera  is  brought  to  a  strong  dramatic 
close. 

The  work  has  many  excellencies,  among  them  simplicity 
of  treatment,  gay  and  sparkling  music,  and  a  humor  per- 
fectly genuine,  although  occasionally  bordering  on  horse- 
play. 

Of  numbers  deservedly  popular  are  the  piquantly 
humorous  duet  of  Lord  and  Lady  Allcash,  "  I  don't  object;  " 
the  quintet,  sung  upon  the  entrance  of  Fra  Diavolo,  "  Oh ! 
rapture  unbounded ; "  Zerlina's  romanza,  sung  to  the  dis- 
guised bandit  and  really  descriptive  of  him,  "  On  yonder 
rock  reclining;"  Fra  Diavolo's  barcarole  to  mandolin  accom- 
paniment, "  The  gondolier,  fond  passion's  slave ;  "  the  effect- 
ive trio  for  Zerlina  and  Lord  and  Lady  Allcash,  "  Let  us,  I 
pray,  good  wife,  to  rest;"  the  serenade  of  Fra  Diavolo, 
"  Young  Agnes ;  "  Zerlina's  aria,  "  'Tis  tomorrow "  and 
her  prayer,  "  Oh,  Holy  Virgin ; "  in  the  third  act,  the 
bandit's  song,  "  Proudly  and  wide  my  standard  flies ;  "  the 
chorus  of  peasants,  "  Oh  Holy  Virgin !  bright  and  fair ;  "  and 
Lorenzo's  song,  "  I'm  thine." 


LA  SONNAMBULA 

"  La  Sonnambula  "  or  "  The  Sleep- Walker,"  composed 
by  Bellini,  is  a  light  opera  in  three  acts,  produced  in  Milan, 
March  6,  1831.  The  libretto  by  Romani  is  founded  on  a 
vaudeville-ballet  by  Scribe. 

CHARACTERS. 

Amina,  a  sleep-walker,  bride  of  Elvino.  i 

Elvino,  a  rich  young  farmer. 

Rodolfo,  lord  of  the  Castle,  traveling  incognito. 

Lisa,  mistress  of  the  Inn. 

Alessio,  a  young  peasant,  suitor  of  Lisa. 

Teresa,  the  miller's  wife,  foster-mother  of  Amina. 

Notary,  postilion,  peasants. 
"  La  Sonnambula  "  is  a  simple  Swiss  village  story,  its 
hero  being  the  prosperous  young  Elvino  and  its  heroine 
Amina,  an  orphan  girl  dowered  with  nothing  but  her  personal 
attractions,  whom  Elvino  is  about  to  wed.  Lisa  is  infatuated 
with  Elvino,  and,  in  consequence,  she  scorns  her  lover, 
Alessio,  and  is  willing  to  make  use  of  any  circumstance 
which  may  prevent  the  approaching  union  between  Elvino 
and  Amina.  Alessio  incurs  further  disfavor  by  organizing 
the  demonstrations  in  honor  of  the  approaching  wedding. 
On  the  day  before  the  ceremony.  Count  Rodolfo,  incognito, 
comes  back  after  many  years  to  look  after  his  estates  and 
Ftops  at  the  inn.  Here  he  finds  the  pretty  bride-elect  and 
showers  her  with  attentions,  thereby  disturbing  Elvino  and 
his  peace  of  mind. 


122  OPERAS 

It  happens  that  the  fact  that  Amina  is  a  sleep-walker  is 
not  generally  known  and  her  nocturnal  appearances  have 
given  rise  to  a  report  that  the  village  is  haunted.  Rodolfo, 
who  ridicules  the  idea,  seeks  his  apartment,  whither  he  is 
lighted  by  Lisa,  who  stops  for  a  bit  of  flirtation.  Suddenly 
Amina  enters  walking  in  her  sleep.  The  count  gallantly 
quits  his  room,  leaving  her  in  possession,  and  she,  still 
dreaming,  lies  down  upon  his  couch.  The  malicious  Lisa 
hastens  to  inform  Elvino  of  the  compromising  situation  in 
which  he  may  find  his  bride.  He  rushes  in,  finds  the  charge 
confirmed  and  in  high  disdain  demands  his  ring.  Since  he 
is  deaf  to  the  protestations  of  the  now  awakened  Amina,  the 
count  tries  to  convince  him  of  his  injustice  but  in  vain.  In  a 
pique,  Elvino  promises  Lisa  that  he  will  marry  her. 

It  is  Amina's  foster-mother  who  finds  Lisa's  handker- 
chief in  Rodolfo's  room  and  accuses  her  in  turn.  She  shows 
confusion  and  Elvino  begins  to  doubt  her  also.  As  Elvino, 
somewhat  dejectedly,  is  repairing  to  the  church  with  his  new 
bride,  Amina,  again  in  a  somnolent  condition,  is  seen  making 
perilous  progress  across  a  frail  bridge  over  the  mill-wheel. 
Her  lover  is  now  thoroughly  persuaded  of  her  innocence. 
He  receives  her  in  his  arms,  places  his  ring  again  upon  her 
finger  and,  amid  the  rejoicing  of  her  village  friends,  she 
awakens  to  happiness. 

In  this  "  song-play  "  as  it  may  be  called,  Bellini's  lyrical 
genius  is  delightfully  disclosed.  The  work  is  pleasing, 
simple  and  natural,  not  only  in  melody  but  equally  so  in  text, 
for  in  this,  as  in  "  Norma,"  the  composer  was  fortunate  in 
having  the  librettist  best  suited  to  his  style,  viz.,  Felice 
Romani.  "  La  Sonnambula "  has  ever  been  coveted  as  a 
role  by  budding  prima  donnas,  both  Patti  and  Albani  making 
their  first  bow  to  London  as  the  sleep-walker. 

The  score  abounds  in  charming  numbers,  among  them 
being  Amina's  aria,  "  Come  per  me  sereno  "  ("  Oh  love,  for 
me  thy  power  ")  ;  Rudolph's  song,  "  Vi  Ravviso  "  ("As  I 
view  ")  ;  the  chorus  of  villagers  as  they  tiptoe  to  Rudolph's 
apartment ;  the  duet  of  Amina  and  Elvino,  "  O  mio  dolor  " 


LA  SONNAMBULA  123 

("O  my  poor  heart");  Elvino's  aria,  "Ah  perche  non 
posso"  ("Still  so  gently")  and  Amina's  brilliant  aria,  with 
which  the  opera  ends,  "Ah!  non  giunge "  ("Do  not 
mingle  "). 


ZAMPA 

"  Zampa,  or  The  Marble  Bride,"  an  opera  in  three  acts, 
with  music  by  Louis  Joseph  Ferdinand  Herold  and  words 
by  Mellesville,  was  produced  in  Paris,  May  3,  1831. 

CHARACTERS. 

Zampa,  a  corsair. 
Alphonso,  a  Sicilian  officer. 
Daniel,  Zampa's  mate. 
Dandalo,  a  Sicilian  peasant. 
Camilla,  Lugano's   daughter. 
Rita,   her   maid. 
Corsairs,  peasants  and  soldiers. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  Sicily,  in  1630. 

The  opera  opens  on  the  wedding-day  of  Camilla, 
daughter  of  the  wealthy  merchant,  Signor  Lugano,  and  the 
young  lieutenant  Alphonso,  who  some  time  before  has  saved 
his  bride's  father  from  the  brigands  of  Val  Demonio. 
There  is  in  Lugano's  house  a  marble  statue,  the  figure  of 
Albina  Manfredi,  a  beautiful  young  girl,  who  a  number  of 
years  before  had  been  betrayed  by  the  Count  di  Monza.  At 
the  merchant's  home  she  found  a  haven  and  afterwards  died 
there,  having  impressed  all  those  with  whom  she  came  in 
contact  with  the  nobility  of  her  character.  She  has,  indeed, 
come  to  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  patron  saint  to  all 
maidens  suffering  at  the  hands  of  dishonorable  men  and  her 
statue  is  looked  upon  with  something  akin  to  awe.     Alphonso, 


126  OPERAS 

who  is  of  a  different  stamp  entirely  from  the  Count  of 
unpleasant  memory,  confesses  with  emotion  that  this  same 
nobleman  was  his  brother  and  that  his  own  (Alphonso's)  life 
had  been  burdened  by  the  other's  misdeeds.  He  being  much 
younger,  however,  can  no  longer  recall  his  brother's  features 
and  he  believes  him  to  have  died  in  the  prison  of  the  Inqui- 
sition. 

The  bridegroom  is  called  away  by  a  fictitious  message 
and  Dandalo,  a  not  too  courageous  servitor  who  has  been 
sent  after  the  priest,  returns  in  great  perturbation,  telling  a 
tale  of  being  waylaid  by  a  terror-inspiring  person  in  a  red 
mantle  and  a  slouching  hat  with  black  plume,  who  forbade 
his  visit  to  the  priest  and  declared  that  the  marriage  was  not 
to  be.  Scarcely  has  he  finished  his  recountal,  when  the  man 
of  the  spectacular  mantle  and  feather  appears  from  behind 
the  statue  and,  with  his  eyes  fixed  upon  Camilla,  gives  her  a 
letter  from  her  father.  Signor  Lugano,  it  may  be  explained, 
had  gone  that  morning  to  Cyprus  to  receive  one  of  his  mer- 
chantmen coming  from  Smyrna  and  he  had  not  taken  the 
usual  precautions  in  the  way  of  bodyguard,  having  learned 
that  the  notorious  corsair  Zampa,  who  had  devastated  the 
country,  had  been  captured.  The  letter  bears  the  news  that 
Camilla's  father  is  in  the  hands  of  brigands  and  that  Camilla 
is  to  pay  the  bearer,  as  ransom,  anything  he  may  ask. 
The  intruder  announces  that  he  is  Zampa  himself;  that  it  is 
Camilla  he  wants  and  that  only  her  hand  can  save  her 
father's  life.  Just  as  the  corsair's  mate,  Daniel,  comes  to 
tell  him  that  Alphonso  is  in  chains  in  the  citron  grove, 
Camilla  escapes  in  terror.  The  mate's  eyes  light  upon  the 
statue  and  he  starts  back  aghast,  for  he  recognizes  the 
features  of  one  of  the  many  victims  of  his  chief.  Zampa 
mockingly  offers  now  to  fulfil  his  one-time  promise  of  mar- 
riage and  puts  the  ring  upon  the  statue's  hand,  which,  to 
the  general  horror,  closes  upon  it. 

Zampa  prepares  in  glee  for  his  bridal.  He  assumes 
the  splendid  raiment  of  his  last  marriage  and  decks  his 
crew   in  the  garments  of   a   Portuguese   admiral   who   had 


ZAMPA  127 

been  unhappy  enough  to  meet  him.  The  villagers  assemble 
and  Camilla  is  brought  forth  in  her  bridal  gown,  pale  and 
trembling.  Zampa  is  really  in  love  this  time  but  he  fails 
sadly  to  inspire  a  similar  passion  in  Camilla.  Even  his 
monumental  composure  is  shaken,  however,  when  in  the 
church  is  seen  the  spirit  of  Albina  lurking  in  the  shadows 
and  pointing  to  the  ring  upon  her  finger.  The  ceremony 
proceeds,  however,  in  spite  of  attempts  to  prevent  it  made 
by  Alphonso,  who  has  broken  his  bonds,  the  bridegroom 
supporting  the  waning  courage  of  his  bride  by  continual 
reminders  that  if  she  fails  her  father  will  die. 

In  the  third  act,  Camilla  is  found  deep  in  the  realization 
of  the  fact  that  she  is  the  wife  of  a  man  whose  very  looks 
fill  her  with  horror.  Alphonso,  seeking  her  in  disguise  to 
promise  her  rescue,  is  told  by  her  that  she  has  exacted  from 
her  husband  a  promise  to  grant  her  first  demand.  Zampa 
appears  congratulating  himself  on  his  new  role  of  husband 
and  property  owner.  To  complete  his  happiness,  he  thinks 
himself  free  from  further  annoyance  from  the  marble  bride, 
for  that  morning  his  men  have  broken  her  to  pieces  and 
thrown  her  into  the  sea.  Camilla  now  makes  her  request, 
asking  to  be  allowed  to  hide  herself  in  a  convent.  Her 
prayer  is  refused,  her  husband  telling  her  that  she  may  be 
proud  of  her  new  title  of  Countess  di  Monza.  She  faints 
at  the  sound  of  the  name  and,  at  this  juncture,  the  door  is 
burst  open  by  Lugano,  Alphonso  and  the  peasants,  who  rush 
in  with  drawn  swords.  Alphonso  is  about  to  slay  Zampa 
when  Camilla  warns  him  not  to  shed  a  brother's  blood. 
The  corsair  shouts  defiance,  however,  and  says  that  he  claims 
as  his  bride  the  one  whose  hand  bears  his  ring.  At  this,  the 
statue  of  Albina  appears  and  seizes  him  by  the  arm.  As  he 
falls  dying  at  her  feet,  they  disappear  together  in  a  lightning 
flash. 

The  music  which  clothes  this  romantic  tale  is  picturesque 
and  effective.  "  Zampa "  for  many  years  enjoyed  wide- 
spread popularity  and  still  retains  its  place  in  the  opera 
houses  of  France  and  has  occasional  presentations  in  Ger- 


128  OPERAS 

many.  It  is  interesting  not  alone  for  the  many  melodious 
solos  and  effectively  written  concerted  numbers  it  contains 
but  also  as  the  chief  work  of  a  composer,  who  at  the  time  of 
his  early  death,  gave  promise  of  becoming  one  of  the  ablest 
writers  of  opera  France  had  produced. 

The  overture  to  "  Zampa "  has  kept  its  hold  on  the 
public's  liking  and  still  is  performed  by  bands  and  orchestras 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Of  the  vocal  score,  especially 
admirable  numbers  are  the  bright  opening  chorus,  Camilla's 
"A  ce  bonheur  "  ("This  joy  of  mine");  the  quartet  sung 
after  the  appearance  of  Zampa  "  Le  voila  "  ("  There  he  is  ")  ; 
the  finale  of  the  first  act ;  the  chorus  within  the  chapel  in  Act 
II,  "Aux  pieds  de  la  Madone  "  ("At  the  foot  of  the  sacred 
shrine ") ;  Zampa's  barcarole  "  Oil  vas-tu,  pauvre  gondo- 
lier?" ("Ah,  whither,  lonely  gondolier?")  and  his  cavatina 
"Pourquoi  trembler?"  ("Why  shouldst  thou  fear?")  which 
is  one  of  the  gems  of  the  entire  score. 


ROBERT  LE  DIABLE 

"  Robert  le  Diable "  or  "  Robert  the  Devil,"  a  grand 
opera  in  five  acts  (in  the  Enghsh  acting  edition,  three),  with 
music  by  Giacomo  Meyerbeer  and  words  by  Scribe  and 
Delavigne,  was  first  presented  at  the  Academic,  Paris,  Nov. 
21,  1831. 

CHARACTERS. 

Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy. 

Bertram,  his  friend. 

Raimbault,   a   peasant 

Alberti. 

First  Knight. 

Second  Knight. 

Pierre,  squire  to  Robert. 

Herald-at-arms. 

Isabella,  Princess  of  Sicily. 

Alice,  Robert's  foster-sister. 

Mute    parts.     King     of    Sicily,     Prince     of     Grenada, 
Robert's  chaplain,  Helena,  an  abbess. 

Knights,  nobles,  soldiers,  heralds,  monks,  nuns  and 
peasants. 
The  story  is  founded  on  the  well-known  legendary  tale 
of  Robert  the  Devil,  Duke  of  Normandy,  who  is  banished 
from  his  dukedom  for  his  evil  deeds.  He  goes  to  Sicily, 
where  he  falls  in  love  with  Isabella,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Messina,  and  finds  his  love  returned  by  the  maiden.  Robert 
frequently  has  as  companion  one  Bertram,  of  sinister  aspect, 
who  in  reality  is  his  fiend-father  and  to  whose  influence  he 


130  OPERAS 

owes  his  depravity.  He  is,  however,  quite  unaware  that 
this  Bertram  is  an  inhabitant  of  hell  who  deceived  his 
mother.  At  one  time,  while  Robert  is  reveling  with  his 
knights,  the  minstrel  Raimbault,  who  does  not  know  him, 
sings  the  song  of  Robert  the  Devil  and  his  fiend-father  and 
warns  the  hearers  against  the  man  whose  face  is  like  his 
mother's  but  whose  heart  reflects  his  paternity.  Robert  is 
about  to  revenge  himself  upon  the  minstrel  but  the  youth  is 
saved  by  Robert's  foster-sister,  Alice,  who  proves  to  be 
Raimbault's  bride  and  who  implores  Robert  to  forsake  his 
evil  ways.  Bertram  arrives  in  time  to  dissipate  the  influence 
of  her  words  and  tempts  his  victim  to  the  gaming-table, 
from  which  he  arises  stripped  of  all  his  possessions. 

A  challenge  comes  from  the  Prince  of  Grenada,  rival 
for  Isabella's  hand,  to  meet  him  in  mortal  combat.  Robert 
hopes,  by  vanquishing  his  opponent  in  this  tournament,  to 
win  the  hand  of  the  princess  but  while  he  is  pursuing  a 
spectre  combatant  conjured  by  Bertram's  arts,  the  real  tourney 
takes  place  with  Robert  absent.  Bertram  hopes  that  in  this 
hour  of  bitter  disappointment  and  dishonor  he  can  bring 
Robert  entirely  within  his  power.  He  lures  him  to  a  ruined 
cloister  and,  as  brother  fiends  have  suggested  in  a  previous 
orgy,  tells  him  that  bride  and  wealth  will  be  his  if  he  will 
remove  from  the  abbey  a  certain  cypress  branch  endowed 
with  supernatural  powers.  Bertram  thereupon  pronounces 
an  incantation  which  calls  up  from  their  graves  the  guilty 
nuns  buried  below.  They  try  in  various  fashions  to  captivate 
Robert.  Helena,  the  most  beautiful  of  them,  finally  suc- 
ceeds in  making  him  remove  the  branch.  As  the  nuns  sink 
down  by  their  tombs  out  of  which  demons  start  to  secure 
them,  a  chorus  of  fiends  in  the  cloisters  chant  their  joy  over 
the  enslaving  of  this  newest  victim.  Robert  flies  and  with 
the  cypress  branch  enters  unseen  the  apartments  of  Isabella, 
who  falls  into  enchanted  sleep  like  the  rest  of  her  court  and 
is  at  Robert's  mercy.  When  she  awakes,  powerless  to  move, 
he  declares  he  intends  to  carry  her  away  but  she  appeals  to 
his  honor  and  he  breaks  the  branch,  the  spell  being  broken 


ROBERT  LE  DIABLE  131 

with  it.  Bertram  is  not  yet  willing  to  give  him  up,  however, 
having  for  him  a  species  of  affection  and  a  desire  that  they 
be  one  in  motive.  Accordingly,  he  urges  him  to  sign  a 
contract  which  will  get  him  his  desires  but  which  will  give 
his  soul  to  hell.  As  they  stand  side  by  side  in  the  cathedral, 
Robert  hears  the  chorus  of  monks  singing  their  sacred  music. 
This  combined  with  the  thought  of  his  mother  makes  him 
hesitate.  As  a  last  resort,  Bertram  informs  him  that  he  is 
his  fiend-father  and  in  view  of  this  the  youth  is  about  to 
yield,  when  Alice  appears  with  the  news  that  Isabella's  hand 
is  free.  Knowing  Robert's  extremity,  Alice  produces  his 
mother's  will,  which  warns  him  against  Bertram's  tempta- 
tions and  entreats  him  to  save  his  soul.  As  he  still  wavers, 
trying  to  escape  the  power  of  Bertram's  will,  the  clock  strikes 
the  hour  of  midnight;  the  spell  is  over,  and  Bertram  dis- 
appears swallowed  up  by  flames,  while  Isabella  in  her  mar- 
riage robes  comes  to  meet  her  lover,  who  now  is  freed  forever 
from  evil. 

"  Robert  the  Devil  "  has  value  in  the  history  of  opera, 
even  though  the  work  rarely  has  presentation  nowadays.  In 
it  Meyerbeer  freed  himself  from  the  purely  formal  in  operatic 
construction  and  gave  to  the  stage  for  the  first  time  a  work 
in  which  the  most  elaborate  stage  spectacle,  vividly  dramatic 
music,  impassioned  melodies  and  romance  run  riot  were 
combined.  Much  of  the  text  impressed  even  in  the  period 
of  the  opera's  first  popularity  as  absurd  and  the  music  to 
present-day  ears  does  not  ring  sincere.  But  it  was  a  distinct 
step  forward  in  operatic  progress  at  the  time  it  was  com- 
posed and  is,  therefore,  of  true  significance.  Numbers  which 
at  one  time  were  regarded  as  masterly  and  which  represent 
the  best  that  is  in  the  score  are  a  ballade  for  Raimbault, 
**  Jadis  regnait  en  Normandie  "  ("  Some  time  ago  in  Nor- 
mandy"); the  romance  for  Alice,  "  Va,  dit-elle "  ("Go, 
said  she"),  in  which  she  tells  Robert  of  his  mother's  love 
for  him,  the  cavatina  for  Isabella  "  En  vain  j'espere  "  ("  In 
vain  I  hope  ")  ;  the  duet  for  Isabella  and  Robert  "Avec  bonte 
voyez  ma  peine "    ("  Oh  kindly  regard  my  griefs ") ;   the 


132  OPERAS 

famous  scene  of  "The  Temptation,"  in  which  Meyerbeer 
employs  all  his  powers  in  the  composing  of  seductive  and 
diabolical  music;  Isabella's  cavatina,  "Robert  toi  que 
j'aime"  ("Robert  whom  I  love  so  dearly")  and  the  great 
trio  in  the  closing  act. 


NORMA 

**  Norma,"  a  tragic  opera  in  two  acts,  the  score  by 
Vincenzo  Bellini  and  the  book  by  Felice  Romani,  was 
originally  presented  Dec.  26,  1831,  at  Milan.  It  is  founded 
on  an  old  French  story. 

CHARACTERS. 

Norma,  High  Priestess  of  the  Temple  of  Esus. 

Adalgisa,  a  virgin  of  the  temple. 

Clotilde,  attendant  on  Norma. 

Pollione,  a  Roman  proconsul,  commanding  the  legions 
of  Gaul. 

Flavius,  his  lieutenant. 

Oroveso,  the  Arch-Druid,  father  of  Norma. 

Ministering  and  attendant  priests  and  officers  of  the 
temple,  Gallic  warriors,  priestesses  and  virgins  of  the 
temple,  two  children  of  Norma  and  Pollione. 

This  opera,  which  is  Bellini's  most  dramatic  work,  is 
set  in  Druidic  Gaul,  about  50  B.  C,  or  after  its  occupation 
by  the  Romans,  who  have  subjugated  the  people  and  made 
Pollione  governor.  Norma,  daughter  of  Oroveso,  the  Arch- 
Druid,  has  broken  her  vows  as  high  priestess  and  is  secretly 
married  to  Pollione,  by  whom  she  has  two  children.  The 
proconsul  quickly  transfers  his  affections  to  Adalgisa,  a 
temple  virgin,  and  entreats  her  to  fly  with  him.  Norma  is 
adored  by  the  Gauls  for  her  interpretation  of  the  oracles  and 
for   her   prophecy  that   Rome,   the  enemy   of   the   country 


134  OPERAS 

eventually  will  fall.  Adalgisa  shares  in  this  reverence  and 
is  lead  by  conscience  to  confess  to  Norma  her  sinful  love. 
The  High  Priestess  is  lenient,  remembering  her  own  similar 
defection  and  grants  her  absolution  from  her  vows.  But 
when  she  inquires  the  name  of  Adalgisa's  lover,  its  revela- 
tion forces  her  to  confess  that  Pollione  is  her  own  faithless 
husband. 

He  appears  and  she  reviles  him.  He  then  renews  his 
entreaties  to  Adalgisa  to  follow  him  but  is  repulsed.  Norma 
resolves,  meanwhile,  upon  revenge  and  sees  it  in  the  murder 
of  her  children.  But  as  she  leans  over  their  sleeping  forms, 
the  maternal  passion  asserts  itself  and  she  decides  rather  to 
put  them  in  Adalgisa's  hands  and  send  her  with  them  to 
Pollione.  She  confides  this  plan  to  her  rival  and  each 
woman  in  this  calmer  moment  is  willing  to  sacrifice  herself 
for  the  other.  Pollione,  in  attempting  to  tear  Adalgisa  from 
the  altar,  is  himself  captured  by  the  Druids  whom  Norma 
has  summoned  by  striking  the  sacred  shield.  Norma  offers 
to  grant  safety  to  Pollione  if  he  will  give  up  Adalgisa  but 
he  refuses,  preferring  death.  The  exasperated  High  Priestess 
summons  back  the  assembly,  which  she  previously  has  dis- 
missed, and  for  one  vengeful  moment  threatens  to  denounce 
with  him  the  innocent  virgin  he  so  madly  loves.  But  her 
better  nature  once  more  gains  the  upper  hand.  Norma  then 
takes  the  sacred  wreath  from  her  brow  and  impeaches  herself 
by  confessing  her  marriage.  She  is  tried  and  is  sentenced 
to  be  burned.  Pollione  recognizes  the  greatness  of  her 
character  and  too  late  his  love  for  her  returns.  He  takes 
his  place  beside  her  on  the  funeral-pyre  and  their  sins  are 
expiated  in  its  flames. 

Personally,  Bellini  considered  this  work  his  master- 
piece, although  his  admirers  usually  award  the  palm  to  "  La 
Sonnambula."  The  work  possesses  remarkable  melodic 
charm  and  because  of  the  emotional  possibilities  of  its  lead- 
ing role  was  long  loved  by  great  prima  donnas.  Hervey 
says,  "  Bellini,  the  melodist  par  excellence,  wrote  from  the 
heart.     La  Sonnambula  and  Norma  may  be  old-fashioned 


NORMA  135 

and  their  construction  may  be  of  the  simplest  but  they  con- 
tain really  beautiful  melodies,  they  appeal  to  the  emotions 
and  one  feels  that  they  were  written  not  solely  for  effect  but 
to  express  the  composer's  innermost  thoughts." 

Justly  the  most  famous  of  the  numbers  is  Norma's 
beautiful  prayer,  "Costa  Diva"  ("Goddess  chaste"),  sung 
after  cutting  'the  sacred  mistletoe.  Also  notable  are  Pol- 
lione's  confession  of  his  guilty  love,  "  Meco  all'  alter  de 
Venere  "  ("  With  me  at  Venus'  altar  ")  ;  his  passionate  plea 
to  Adalgisa,  "  Va,  crudele  "  ("  Go,  cruel  one  ")  ;  the  terzetto 
in  which  he  is  denounced,  sung  by  Pollione,  Norma  and 
Adalgisa,  "O!  di  qual  sei  tu  "  ("O!  how  his  art");  Nor- 
ma's song  consigning  her  children  to  Adalgisa,  "  Deh !  con 
te  li  prendi  "  ("Deign  in  infancy  to  tend  them")  and  the 
virgin's  response,  "  Mira,  O  Norma"  ("Dearest  Norma") 
— ■  a  number  which  is  known  the  world  over ;  Norma's  call 
to  arms  and  the  chorus,  "  Guerra,  guerra "  and  her  final 
duet  with  Pollione  before  mounting  the  sacrificial  pile. 


L'ELISIR  D'AMORE 

"L'Elisir  d'Amore "  or  "The  Elixir  of  Love,"  an 
opera  buffa  in  two  acts  with  text  by  Romani  and  music  by 
Gaetano  Donizetti,  was  first  produced  in  Milan  in  1832. 

CHARACTERS. 

Adina,  a  wealthy  and  independent  young  woman. 
Nemorino,  a  young  peasant  in  love  with  Adina. 
Belcore,  sergeant  of  the  village  garrison. 
Doctor  Dulcamara,  a  perambulating  physician. 
Gianetta,  a  peasant  girl. 
A  landlord,  a  notary,  peasants,  soldiers,  villagers. 

The  scene  of  the  opera  is  laid  in  a  little  Italian  village 
of  the  last  century.  Adina  is  a  young  woman  prominent 
in  the  community  for  her  graces  and  gaiety  and  for  the  fact 
that  she  is  possessor  of  estates  of  value.  She  is  adored  by 
Nemorino,  a  handsome  young  peasant,  who  is  deeply  grieved 
over  the  gulf  which  separates  them  in  the  matter  of  wealth 
and  education.  The  lady  is  indeed  very  cool  in  her  reception 
of  his  protestations  of  regard,  and  fancies  that  she  is  quite 
indifferent  to  him.  Nemorino's  despair  becomes  measureless 
when  Sergeant  Belcore,  a  dashing  person,  believed  by  himself, 
at  least,  to  be  a  great  lady-killer,  arrives  and  is  received  by 
Adina  with  marked  favor.  Soon  after  she  has  assured  "her 
sighing  swain  with  finality  that  it  is  useless  for  him  to  hope, 
there  comes  to  the  village  one  Doctor  Dulcamara,  who  pro- 
claims in  the  most  extravagant  terms  the  manifold  merits  of 


138  OPERAS 

his  Magic  Pain  Extractor.  Nemorino,  catching  at  a  straw, 
makes  haste  to  inquire  if  the  learned  one  knows  aught  of  the 
magic  draught  of  Queen  Isotta,  which  is  capable  of  enabling 
the  one  who  drinks  it  to  command  the  love  of  anyone  he  may- 
choose.  The  resourceful  Dulcamara  assures  him  that  he  is 
the  very  one  who  compounds  it  and  immediately  sells  him  a 
bottle  of  Bordeaux  wine  in  return  for  his  last  eagle.  The 
desired-for  effect  is  not  to  be  observable  until  the  morrow, 
possibly  not  until  after  the  doctor's  departure. 

Nemorino  drinks  the  potion  with  all  his  faith  and  fancies 
he  feels  in  himself  an  immediate  effect.  In  this  he  is  right, 
for  he  is  intoxicated.  Confident  that  Adina  will  be  his  on 
the  morrow  and  being  well  able  to  afford  a  little  previous 
indifference,  he  treats  her  with  tipsy  nonchalance,  whereat 
the  lady  is  much  piqued,  so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  she  at  once 
accepts  her  sergeant's  proposal  of  marriage  as  a  little  revenge. 
As  that  gentleman  has  received  orders  to  march  on  the 
morrow,  he  urges  that  the  wedding  occur  immediately.  The 
notary  is  summoned,  and  a  ball  is  arranged  to  which  every- 
body is  invited,  even  the  famous  doctor.  That  worthy  is 
sought  at  the  scene  of  the  festivity  by  Nemorino,  who  hopes 
that  a  second  bottle  may  accelerate  the  effect  so  that  he  may 
be  loved  before  the  wedding  takes  place.  The  doctor  has 
more  of  the  specific,  but  Nemorino  has  no  money.  Belcore, 
seeing  his  despair  and  learning  that  it  arises  from  financial 
trouble,  offers  to  furnish  him  with  twenty  crowns  if  he  will 
enlist  in  his  corps.  To  this  Nemorino  agrees  and  signs  the 
papers.  Meantime,  word  has  been  received  in  the  village 
that  Nemorino's  uncle  has  died,  making  him  the  richest  man 
in  the  village.  The  news,  however,  has  not  reached  the  ears 
of  the  one  most  concerned,  and  he  ascribes  his  sudden  access 
of  popularity  to  the  elixir.  Seeing  him  surrounded  by  six- 
teen women,  the  doctor  cannot  refrain  from  boasting  to 
Adina  that  it  is  his  great  draught  that  brought  it  all  about. 
Adina,  touched  at  last  by  this  final  proof  of  devotion,  of 
which  she  has  just  learned,  not  only  pays  the  money  which 
frees  him  from  the  obligation  to  the  sergeant,  but  goes  to 


L'ELISIR  D'AMORE  139 

Nemorino  and  confesses  that  she  really  cares  for  him. 
Having  brought  such  a  happy  match  about,  the  doctor  is  in 
high  repute  with  everyone  except  the  dashing  sergeant,  who, 
after  all,  finds  his  bachelor  days  are  not  at  an  end  and  the 
villagers  loudly  join  in  the  cry 

Viva  the  great  Dulcamara, 
The  very  phcenix  of  all  doctors. 

Tuneful  numbers  in  this  graceful  work  are  Dulcamara's 
buffo  song,  descriptive  of  his  medicine,  "  Give  ear  now,  ye 
rustic  ones ;  "  the  final  chorus  in  the  first  act,  "  The  wine-cup, 
full  teeming ;  "  the  duet  of  Adina  and  Doctor  Dulcamara, 
"  I  have  riches,  thou  hast  beauty  "  and  Nemorino's  famous 
tenor  romanza,  "  The  furtive  tear," 


HANS  HEILING 

"  Hans  Heiling  "  is  a  romantic  opera  in  three  acts  and 
a  prologue,  with  the  score  by  Heinrich  Marschner  and  text 
by  Edouard  Devrient.  It  was  first  produced  in  Berlin  in 
1833. 

CHARACTERS. 

The  Queen  of  Elfland. 

Hans  Heiling,  her  son. 

Anna,  his  betrothed. 

Gertrude,  her  mother. 

Conrad. 

Stephan. 

Hans  Heiling  is  king  of  the  gnomes,  but  he  has  strayed 
from  his  native  sphere  and  fallen  in  love  with  Anna,  a  child 
of  the  earth.  In  the  prologue,  he  announces  to  his  elfin 
subjects  that  he  proposes  to  leave  them  to  join  the  maiden 
and  persists  in  following  this  course,  despite  the  protests  of 
his  wiser  mother.  Seeing  him  immovable,  she  gives  him 
wondrous  jewels  and  a  magic  book  which  shall  prevent  his 
losing  his  power  over  the  gnomes.  Thus  equipped,  he  sets 
forth  for  the  upper  world.  Arrived  there,  he  seeks  Anna 
whose  mother  induces  her  to  accept  the  advances  of  the  rich 
stranger.  He  presents  her  with  a  handsome  chain,  and  Anna, 
with  the  true  characteristics  of  the  eternal  feminine,  feels  at 
once  desirous  of  displaying  her  ornament  and  begs  him  to 
accompany  her  to  the  fair.     But  the  serious  Hans,  who  has 


142  OPERAS 

no  liking  for  such  things,  refuses  much  to  his  betrothed's 
annoyance.  She  is  distracted  from  her  disappointment  by 
the  discovery  of  an  amazing  book  in  her  lover's  room.  Led 
by  curiosity  she  opens  it,  at  which  the  leaves  begin  to  turn 
quite  by  themselves  and  the  weird  signs  upon  them  seem  to 
menace  her.  In  terror  she  cries  out  and  Hans  sees  too  late 
what  she  has  been  doing.  Suspecting  that  it  is  a  magic 
book,  Anna  implores  him  to  destroy  it.  He  finally  consents 
and  throws  it  into  the  fire,  thus  severing  all  connection  with 
his  people.  As  the  flames  enwrap  it,  a  sudden  thunder-clap 
is  heard.  Anna  still  longs  for  the  fair  and  now  Hans  offers 
to  go  on  condition  that  she  will  not  dance.  She  promises, 
but  upon  arriving  at  the  festival,  she  at  once  is  surrounded 
by  the  village  lads,  who  do  not  look  with  favor  upon  the 
stranger  who  has  stolen  the  fairest  of  the  girls.  Conrad 
the  hunter,  who  loves  her,  induces  her  to  violate  her  promise. 
The  angry  Hans  throws  out  a  word  of  prohibition  but 
Anna,  loftily  reminding  him  that  they  are  not  yet  married, 
runs  laughingly  away  on  Conrad's  arm. 

In  the  second  act,  we  find  Anna  musing  in  the  forest. 
She  has  discovered  that  she  has  a  heart  and  that  it  belongs 
to  Conrad  and  not  to  her  rich  fiance.  Her  revery  is  sud- 
denly disturbed  by  the  discovery  that  she  is  surrounded  by  a 
troop  of  gnomes.  The  Queen  who  heads  them  reveals  to  her 
the  real  identity  of  Hans  and  implores  her  to  give  him  back 
to  them.  When  they  have  gone,  Conrad  appears  and  Anna 
makes  him  happy  by  acknowledging  her  love  and  enlisting 
his  services  in  the  task  of  curing  Hans  of  his  infatuation. 
She  scarcely  has  reached  her  mother's  cottage  when  Hans 
comes  to  present  his  bridal  gift.  She  shrinks  from  him, 
telling  him  that  she  knows  his  origin.  Enraged  he  hurls  his 
dagger  at  his  successful  rival  and  hurries  out. 

In  the  third  act,  the  disconsolate  Hans  is  seen  roaming 
in  the  mountains.  Sick  of  his  experience  on  earth,  he  decides 
to  go  back  to  his  home.  He  summons  his  former  companions 
and  subjects,  but  they  remind  him  that  with  the  destruction 
of  the  magic  book  he  lost  his  power  over  them.     To  add  to 


HANS  HEILING  143 

his  misery,  he  learns  that  Conrad  is  about  to  marry  Anna, 
the  dagger  having  swerved  from  its  course.  In  despair  at 
having  lost  not  only  earth  but  Elfinland  as  well,  he  casts 
himself  upon  the  ground  and  the  gnomes,  recognizing  that 
his  earthly  hope  is  at  an  end,  renew  their  fealty  to  him  and 
allow  him  to  return  with  them  to  the  Queen. 

The  act  closes  with  the  wedding.  When  Anna,  sur- 
rounded by  her  merry  companions,  turns  to  look  into  the 
eyes  of  her  bridegroom,  she  finds  Hans  at  her  side.  Conrad 
starts  to  attack  him  but  the  other's  magic  causes  his  sword  to 
break  in  the  air.  Hans  calls  upon  the  gnomes  to  aid  him  in 
his  vengeance  but  the  Queen  appears  and  exhorts  him  to 
forgiveness.  He  is  swayed  by  her  and  follows  her  to  reign 
forever  in  his  rightful  kingdom. 

The  opera,  which,  nowadays,  is  sung  but  rarely  outside 
of  Germany,  contains  music  of  a  finely  lyric  and  oftentimes 
strongly  dramatic  character.  Heiling's  aria  from  the  first 
act,  "An  jenem  Tag"  ("On  that  fair  day"),  still  has  not 
infrequent  performances  in  concert  both  here  and  abroad  and 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  gem  of  the  score.  Of  worth  are 
also  the  Queen's  aria,  "O  bleib  bei  mir  "  ("O  stay  with 
me");  the  first  act  finale ;  Anna's  scena  and  aria,  "  Einst  war 
so  tiefer  Freude "  ("Once  was  such  deep  contentment"); 
Conrad  and  Anna's  duet,  "  Ha!  dieses  Wort "  ("Ha!  such  a 
word"^  and  Heiling's  conjuration,  "  Herauf  "  ("Appear"). 


DAS  NAGHTLAGER  VON  GRANADA 

"  Das  Nachtlager  von  Granada "  or  "A  Night's 
Lodging  in  Granada,"  a  romantic  opera  in  two  acts  with 
music  by  Konradin  Kreutzer  and  Hnes  by  Karl  Johann  Braun, 
after  Frederick  Kind's  play  of  the  same  name,  was  produced 
at  Vienna,  at  the  Imperial  Private  Theatre  in  the  Josephstadt, 
Jan.  13,  1834. 

CHARACTERS. 

A  Huntsman. 

Ambrosio,  an  old  shepherd. 

Gabrielle,  his  niece. 

Vasco,  a  shepherd. 

Pedro,  a  shepherd. 

Gomez,  a  young  shepherd. 

Count  Otto,  a  German  nobleman. 

An  Alcade. 

Hunters,  servants,  shepherds  and  shepherdesses,  magis- 
trates. 

The  hero  of  the  opera  is  Maxmilian,  Archduke  of 
Austria.     The  place  is  Spain  and  the  time  1550. 

When  the  curtain  rises  there  is  discovered  in  the  fore- 
ground a  ruined  castle  of  Moorish  times,  with  columns  sunk 
in  the  earth  and  grass-grown  heaps  of  fragments.  Within 
the  ruins  is  a  cottage  and  in  front  of  it  a  stone  bench,  upon 
which  sits  the  dejected  Gabrielle  deploring  her  misfortune 
and  lamenting  that  she  has  lost  her  pet  dove,  the  gift  of  her 
lover  Gomez.     Gomez,  overhearing  her,  tries  to  comfort  her 


146  OPERAS 

and  tells  her  of  his  resolution  to  go  to  the  Prince  Regent  to 
obtain  his  help  in  overcoming  the  opposition  to  their  union 
put  forth  by  her  relative,  Ambrosio.  Even  now  the  sound 
of  the  royal  hunt  is  heard  in  the  mountains  and  he  starts 
away.  At  this  the  Huntsman  comes  down  the  mountain 
path,  his  golden  hunting  horn  over  his  shoulder,  and  in  his 
hand  Gabrielle's  white  dove,  which  he  has  rescued  from  an 
eagle's  nest.  He  has  been  lost  and  he  is  happy  to  see  signs 
of  habitation  again.  At  the  sight  of  Gabrielle  he  exclaims, 
"I  have  found  the  fairest  fawn  of  all  the  forest."  The  girl 
joyously  takes  the  dove  from  the  gallant  stranger  and,  hav- 
ing kissed  it,  lets  it  go  free. 

The  Huntsman,  illy  hiding  his  admiration,  questions  the 
girl  about  herself;  and,  when  she  shyly  asks  his  identity,  he 
says  that  he  is  a  musketeer  in  the  pay  of  the  regent.  He  asks 
for  food  and  Gabrielle  brings  him  bread  and  fruit.  While 
she  waits  upon  him  the  Huntsman  gazes  at  her  as  if  under 
a  spell  and  finally  declares  his  love.  Eluding  his  embraces, 
she  tells  him  that  she  has  two  suitors  and  that  the  one  she 
loves  has  gone  to  seek  the  Prince  Regent,  hoping  to  gain  his 
sanction  to  their  union. 

The  Huntsman  says  that  it  is  already  granted,  since  he, 
himself,  is  in  high  favor  with  the  Prince,  but  he  sighs  bit- 
terly because  "  the  rose  blooms  not  for  him." 

As  he  implants  a  kiss  upon  her  forehead,  her  uncle  and 
the  shepherds,  Pedro  and  Vasco,  surprise  them.  Vasco  is 
the  other  suitor  favored  by  Gabrielle's  uncle  and  is  not  in 
highest  repute  in  the  neighborhod.  He  falls  upon  the  Hunts- 
man and  the  two  engage  in  a  quarrel.  The  Huntsman,  angry 
at  Vasco's  insolence,  defies  the  shepherds  and  Ambrosio 
warns  him  that  he  has  but  to  pipe  to  his  men  and  a  dozen 
will  spring  from  the  forest.  Gabrielle  attempts  to  act  as 
peacemaker  and  the  Huntsman,  appeased  by  her  gentleness, 
admits  that  he  has  been  hasty  and  asks  shelter  for  the  night. 
The  shepherds  are  far  from  gracious  but  the  Huntsman 
throws  a  full  purse  among  them,  declaring  that  he  will  pay 
for  his  pallet  of  straw  with  gold.     The  apartment  is  ordered 


DAS  NACHTLAGER  VON  GRANADA     147 

prepared  for  him,  Vasco  muttering  under  his  breath  that  the 
guest  will  not  depart  in  the  morning. 

Gabrielle  fills  a  cup  for  the  Huntsman  which  he  asks 
her  to  taste,  Vasco  being  still  further  incensed  by  this 
familiarity.  He  vows  that  the  Huntsman  shall  pay  for  his 
kiss  with  his  life,  though  Ambrosio,  shrinking  from  murder, 
weakly  demurs. 

As  evening  falls  the  shepherds  and  shepherdesses  flock 
upon  the  scene  and  Gabrielle  sings  a  song  to  the  Huntsman 
to  the  music  of  the  lute.  Meanwhile,  Vasco  removes  the 
flint  from  the  lock  of  the  Huntsman's  gun  and  resumes  his 
seat  unobserved.  When  the  song  is  ended  the  Huntsman 
takes  his  rifle  and  enters  the  ruin  conducted  by  Gabrielle. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  act,  a  wild  forest  and 
mountain  scene  is  disclosed  in  dim  moonlight.  Gomez  stands 
in  deep  dejection,  his  horse  tied  to  a  tree.  He  has  been 
searching  in  vain  for  the  hunting  party  of  the  Prince.  Even 
now  the  sound  of  a  horn  is  heard  and  Count  Otto  and  his 
men  come  riding  with  torches  through  the  dark  vale  in 
search  of  a  lost  member  of  their  party.  Gomez  directs  them 
to  the  ruined  castle  and  they  go  on. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  interior  of  the  old  Moorish 
castle  with  its  fire-blackened  arches  and  columns.  The 
mountain  cliffs  and  the  moon  are  seen  through  latticed  doors 
and  windows.  Vasco,  muttering  that  the  stranger  shall  die, 
IS  closely  followed  by  Gabrielle,  who  pleads  for  the  safety  of 
the  Huntsman.  Vasco  offers  to  save  him  if  Gabrielle  will 
marry  him  (Vasco),  to  which  she  rejoins  that  she  then  must 
leave  the  stranger  to  God's  protection.  The  dissembling 
Vasco  lights  the  Huntsman  to  his  bed,  bids  him  good  rest 
and  departs. 

A  little  later  Gabrielle,  calling  softly  through  the  lattice, 
wakes  the  sleeping  Huntsman  and  tells  him  of  the  plans  of 
the  murderers.  He  finds  his  gun  useless  and  so  girds  on  his 
sword.  Soon  the  door  is  chopped  down  and  the  murderers 
rush  in.  The  Huntsman  declares  himself  the  Prince  Regent 
and  offers  them  pardon  if  they  kneel  to  him.    Only  Vasco 


148  OPERAS 

refuses  and  bids  the  others  resume  the  attack.  In  the  fray 
Ambrosio  is  wounded  and  runs  away.  Vasco  and  the 
Huntsman  engage  in  a  life  and  death  struggle  and  the  Hunts- 
man finally  wrests  the  dagger  from  Vasco  and  runs  him 
through. 

The  horns  of  the  hunting  party  sound  without  and  the 
Huntsman  answers  the  signal.  Gabrielle  and  Gomez  rush  in 
and  the  Huntsman  begs  to  know  how  he  may  reward  the 
maiden  whose  timely  warning  has  saved  his  life.  Gabrielle 
reminds  him  of  her  desire  for  the  intercession  of  the  Prince 
Regent,  whereupon  the  Huntsman  discovers  himself  as  that 
person  and,  giving  them  his  blessing,  joins  their  hands. 


LUCREZIA  BORGIA 

"  Lucrezia  Borgia,"  a  tragic  opera  in  three  acts  with 
text  by  FeHce  Romani  and  music  by  Gaetano  Donizetti,  was 
first  presented  to  the  public  in  1834,  at  La  Scala,  Milan.  It 
is  taken  from  a  work  of  the  same  name  by  Victor  Hugo, 
who  sued  the  author  for  damages  under  the  copyright  law. 
The  opera  was  thereupon  greatly  changed  and  mutilated, 
but  later  on,  indemnity  having  been  paid,  it  was  restored 
to  its  original  form. 

CHARACTERS. 

Don  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara. 

Lucrezia   Borgia,  Duchess  of   Ferrara. 

Gennaro,  son  of  the  Duchess. 

Maffio  Orsini,   a  friend  to  Gennaro. 

Astolfo,  an  agent  of  the  Duchess. 

Ascanio  Petrucci. 

Don  Apostolo  Gazella. 

Rustighello,  an  agent  of  the  Duke. 

Jeppo  Liverotto. 

Oloferno  Vitellozzo. 

Gubetta,  a  Spaniard,  an  agent  of  the  Duchess. 

The  Princess  Negroni. 

Knights,  squires,  ladies,  pages,  masks,  soldiers,  sheriffs, 
cup-bearers,   gondoliers. 

The  story  of  the  opera  revolves  about  the  person  of 
Lucrezia  Borgia  of  unpleasant  fame,  the  natural  daughter 
of   Cardinal   Borgia,   afterwards    Pope   Alexander  VI.      Its 


150  OPERAS 

hero,  her  illegitimate  son  Gennaro,  brought  up  by  a  fisher- 
man as  his  own  child,  rises  in  young  manhood  to  high  rank 
in  the  Venetian  army.  At  a  festival  at  Barberigo  Palace, 
which  is  attended  by  Gennaro  and  his  friends,  the  youth 
falls  asleep  and  is  discovered  by  his  mother.  Lucrezia  has 
come  to  the  festival  on  a  secret  mission  and  masked,  for 
she  is  hated  by  most  of  the  guests,  both  for  her  own 
wicked  deeds  and  for  those  of  her  family.  Gennaro's 
beauty  and  the  honor  to  which  he  has  arrived  touch  her. 
She  is,  indeed,  overwhelmed  with  motherly  pride.  When 
he  awakes  he  finds  himself  strangely  drawn  toward  the 
beautiful  woman,  but  his  friends  warn  him  that  she  is  the 
hated  Borgia  and  the  attraction  vanishes.  The  youths  re- 
mind her  of  their  murdered  relatives  whose  blood  is  on 
her  hands,  and  hurl  at  her  such  envenomed  accusations  that 
she  falls  senseless. 

Lucrezia's  husband,  Don  Alfonso,  who  is  ignorant  of 
the  existence  of  such  a  son,  notices  her  interest  in  Gennaro 
and  becomes  jealous  of  him.  When  the  young  man  muti- 
lates the  Borgia  escutcheon  on  the  gates  to  show  his  loath- 
ing for  the  family,  the  Don  brings  about  his  imprisonment. 
Lucrezia  orders  the  offender's  death,  but  when  he  is  brought 
before  her,  to  her  horror,  she  recognizes  her  own  son.  The 
Duke  believes  the  youth  to  be  her  paramour  and  commands 
her  to  give  him  with  her  own  hand  a  draught  of  poisoned 
wine  in  a  golden  chalice.  She  does  so,  but  a  few  minutes 
later  finds  an  opportunity  to  give  him  an  antidote  and  his 
death  is  averted. 

Lucrezia  advises  him  to  fly  from  Ferrara,  and  hopes 
that  he  has  well  made  his  escape,  but  unfortunately  he  joins 
his  comrades  at  a  carousal  at  the  Castle  of  the  Princess 
Negroni.  The  comrades  have  been  brought  together  by  the 
machination  of  Lucrezia  who,  consistent  with  her  charac- 
ter, designs  revenge  for  their  insult  to  her  in  the  presence 
of  her  son.  They  have  drunk  the  poisoned  wine  and  she 
has  come  personally  to  gloat  over  their  end.  "  Yes,  I  am 
the  Borgia ! "  she  laughs  as  they  start  in  consternation  when 


LUCREZIA   BORGIA  151 

she  appears.  "A  fete,  a  sorry  fete  you  gave  me  in  Venice. 
I  return  you  a  supper  in  Ferrara." 

But  now  to  her  horror  she  sees  her  own  son  in  the 
company  and  finds  that  he  too  has  partaken  of  the  poison 
and  must  die.  Again  she  thrusts  the  antidote  upon  him. 
As  there  is  not  enough  for  his  friends,  he  refuses  and 
threatens  to  kill  her.  It  is  then  that  she  tells  him  the 
secret  of  his  birth,  but  this  makes  him  the  more  unhappy 
and  again  he  puts  aside  the  antidote  and  dies  in  agony. 
At  this  moment  the  Duke  arrives  to  find  his  wife  slain  by 
her  own  conscience  and  lying  among  the  victims  of  her 
cruelty. 

Among  the  best  numbers  are  Lucrezia's  arias  sung  over 
the  form  of  the  sleeping  Gennaro,  "  Com'e  bello  quale  in- 
canto  "  ("Ah,  how  fair  is  he  ")  ;  the  duet  of  Gennaro  and 
Lucrezia,  "  De  pescatore  ignobile "  ("With  fisher  folk  of 
lowly  birth");  the  trio  of  Lucrezia,  Alfonso  and  Gennaro 
beginning  "  Se  ti  tradisce  "  ("  If  he  betray  thee  ")  ;  and  Or- 
sini's  drinking  song,  the  famous  "  Brindisi,"  "  II  segreto  per 
esser  felice  "  ("Ah!  'tis  better  to  laugh  than  be  sighing"). 


I  PURITANI 

"  I  Puritani  "  or  "  The  Puritans  "  is  an  historical  opera 
in  three  acts  composed  by  Vincenzo  Bellini  and  first  pre- 
sented at  the  Theatre  Italien,  Paris,  Jan.  25,  1835,  in  the 
last  year  of  its  gifted  composer's  life.  The  librettist  was 
Count  Pepoli. 

CHARACTERS. 

Lord  Walter  Walton,  a  Puritan. 

Sir    George,   his   brother. 

Lord  Arthur  Talbot,  a  cavalier. 

Sir  Richard  Forth,  a  Puritan  colonel. 

Sir  Bruno  Robertson,  a  Puritan. 

Henrietta,  widow  of  Charles  I. 

Elvira,  daughter  of  Lord  Walton. 

Chorus  of  Puritans,  soldiers  of  Cromwell,  heralds  and 

men-at-arms  of  Lord  Arthur,  countrymen  and  women, 

damsels,  pages  and  servants. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  England  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Pl)TTiouth  in  the  period  preceding  the  impeachment  and 
execution  of  Charles  II.  by  Parliament.  Lord  Walton  is 
keeper  of  the  fortress  held  by  the  parliamentary  forces.  His 
daughter  Elvira,  whose  hand  has  been  promised  to  Sir 
Richard  Forth,  loves  instead  the  young  Royalist,  Lord 
Arthur  Talbot.  Much  to  her  happiness,  her  uncle.  Sir 
George  Walton,  brings  the  information  that  her  father  has 
consented  to  her  marriage  with  Arthur  and  that  the  latter 


154  OPERAS 

is  to  be  admitted  to  the  fortress  for  the  performance  of  the 
ceremony. 

Henrietta,  widow  of  Charles  I.,  is  a  prisoner  in  the 
Plymouth  Castle  under  sentence  of  death,  and  Talbot  makes 
use  of  his  presence  in  the  enemy's  camp  to  pass  her  out  to 
freedom,  disguising  her  in  the  wedding  veil  of  his  bride. 
Part  of  the  incident  comes  to  Elvira's  knowledge,  and  she, 
thinking  that  her  lover  has  eloped  with  another  woman, 
loses  her  reason.  On  his  return,  Arthur  explains  the  mat- 
ter to  the  satisfaction  of  his  lady-love,  but  not  to  that  of 
the  Parliamentarians,  who  have  him  sentenced  to  death  for 
treason.  Happily,  at  this  crisis  word  is  brought  of  the 
defeat  of  the  Stuarts  and  Cromwell  magnanimously  par- 
dons the  political  offenders,  Arthur  not  being  excepted. 
Elvira  is  restored  to  sanity  by  this  good  fortune  and  she 
and  her  Royalist  lover  are  united. 

While  Bellini  was  unfortunate  in  no  longer  having 
Romani  for  his  librettist,  the  music  of  "  I  Puritani "  is 
among  the  richest  and  most  expressive  of  any  he  ever 
wrote.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  opera  that  the  chief  part, 
musically  speaking,  belongs  to  the  tenor  but  being  written 
for  Rubini,  whose  upper  tones  were  phenomenal,  few  tenors 
have  voices  sufficiently  high  to  attempt  it.  The  work  was 
given  in  London  in  1835  for  Mme.  Grisi's  benefit  and  this 
"  Puritani  "  season  was  remembered  years  afterward  as  the 
most  brilliant  ever  knowii.  "  I  Puritani  "  was  Bellini's  last 
work  and  when,  shortly  after  his  death,  the  Theatre  Italien 
in  Paris  reopened  with  it,  the  singers  repeated  to  some  of 
its  melodies,  the  words  of  the  Catholic  service  for  the  dead. 

The  score  is  replete  with  engaging  melodies,  among 
them  the  tenor  song,  "A  te  o  cara "  ("  To  thee,  be- 
loved"); the  polonaise  sung  by  Elvira,  "Son  vergin 
vezzosa "  ("A  virgin  veiled");  the  stirring  chorus  of 
Puritans  which  concludes  the  first  act;  Elvira's  mad  song 
"  Qui  la  voce "  ("  This  the  voice ") ;  the  sonorous  and 
stirring    "  Liberty    Duet "    between    Richard    and    George ; 


I  PURITANI  155 

the  duet  of  Arthur  and  Elvira,  "  Star  teco  ognor  "  ("  Yes 

with  thee    forever ")    and    Arthur's    adagio,    "  Ella  e    tre- 
mante  "    ("  She  now  trembling  "). 


LA  JUIVE 

"  La  Juive "  or  "  The  Jewess,"  a  grand  opera  in  five 
acts,  with  words  by  Scribe  and  music  by  Jacques  Halevy, 
was  first  produced  at  the  Academie  in  Paris,  Feb.  23,  1835. 

CHARACTERS. 

Rachel,  the  Jewess. 

Eudossia,  niece  of  the  Emperor. 

Leopold,  prince  of  the  Empire. 

Cardinal  De  Brogni,  priest  of  the  Council  of  Constance. 

Ruggiero,  first  magistrate  of  the  city  of  Constance. 

Alberto,   officer   of   the   Imperial   Guard. 

Lazarus,  a  Goldsmith. 

Executioner. 

Citizens. 

The  action  takes  place  in  the  year  1414,  in  the  city  of 
Constance,  at  a  time  when  bigotry  and  fanaticism  are  at 
their  height,  the  Hussites  and  the  Jews  in  particular  bear- 
ing the  brunt  of  popular  disfavor.  Of  the  latter  division  of 
the  persecuted  are  Lazarus,  a  wealthy  goldsmith,  and  his 
daughter  Rachel.  Leopold,  a  young  prince  who  has 
returned  from  the  wars  and  is  in  quest  of  further  adventure, 
assumes  the  guise  of  an  Israelite  and  as  an  obscure  painter 
wins  the  heart  of  Rachel.  He  is,  in  reality,  the  husband  of 
Eudossia,  niece  of  the  Emperor.  The  lady,  to  celebrate 
his  safe  return  from  the  battlefield,  procures  from  Lazarus 
as  a  surprise  for  him  a  magnificent  chain  of  jewels  set  in 


158  OPERAS 

gold  and,  in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor  and  the  Court, 
places  it  on  Leopold's  neck.  This  incident  is  viewed  by  the 
horror-stricken  Rachel,  who  makes  public  denunciation  of 
the  man  in  whom  she  has  utterly  put  her  trust.  The  Car- 
dinal excommunicates  Leopold  for  the  double  fault  of  neg- 
lecting his  wife  and  loving  a  Je>jress,  the  latter  a  sin  so 
horrible  that  only  a  sentence  of  death  is  considered  sufficient 
in  punishment  and  on  some  flimsy  pretext  Lazarus  and  his 
daughter  are  sent  to  share  his  doom. 

Lazarus,  who  has  suffered  much  persecution  in  his  day, 
bears  a  bitter  hatred  toward  all  Christians  and  especially 
toward  the  Cardinal,  who  urges  him  to  embrace  the  faith 
and  escape  death,  but  the  goldsmith  persistently  turns  deaf 
ears  to  such  arguments. 

While  the  three  are  waiting  their  doom,  Rachel  is 
visited  in  prison  by  Eudossia,  who  pleads  with  her  to  save 
Leopold  from  death  by  a  recantation  of  her  story.  This 
she  unselfishly  consents  to  do  and  Leopold  goes  free.  But 
as  the  crime  of  conspiracy  is  now  added  to  the  misdeeds  of 
the  Jews,  a  more  horrible  death  is  devised  for  them,  viz., 
immersion  in  a  cauldron  of  boiling  oil.  The  Cardinal  is 
distressed  at  the  failure  of  the  heretics  to  seize  the  one 
possibility  of  escape  from  their  destruction,  for  he  is 
strangely  drawn  toward  the  beautiful  girl.  Many  years 
before  the  Cardinal's  palace  in  Rome  had  been  destroyed 
by  fire  and  he  has  believed  that  his  wife  and  daughter  per- 
ished in  its  flames.  The  Jew  tells  him  that  this  is  not  true; 
that  she  is  alive  and  that  he  knows  her  whereabouts.  All 
efforts  to  draw  further  information  from  him  are  unavail- 
ing and  the  baffled  Cardinal  orders  the  prisoners  sent  to 
their  death  without  delay.  At  the  last  moment  Lazarus 
asks  Rachel  whether  she  is  willing  to  save  her  life  by  adopt- 
ing Christianity  and  she  refuses  indignantly. 

Rachel  goes  first  to  her  fate  and  as  she  is  thrust  into 
the  flames,  the  Cardinal  accosts  Lazarus  for  the  last  time, 
"My  daughter,"  he  implores,  "does  she  live?     Ah!  speak 


LA  JUIVE  159 

for  pity's  sake !  "  Then  Lazarus  points  to  the  falling  fonri 
of  Rachel,  "  Behold,"  he  says,  quietly,  "  she  is  there." 

The  plot  of  the  Jewess  may  be  unnecessarily  horrible, 
but  Halevy  has  bestowed  upon  it  such  warmth  of  feeling- 
and  such  dignity  of  treatment  that  it  long  held  a  prominent 
place  in  the  repertory  of  the  leading  opera  houses  of  the 
world  and  is  still  frequently  performed.  The  composer 
treated  the  subject  with  unusual  sympathy,  as  he  himself 
was  a  Jew.  The  ope^a  made  a  great  sensation  for  it  had 
been  preceded  by  nothing  which  presented  so  great  an 
opportunity  for  pageantry. 

Among  the  powerful  numbers  in  the  first  act  are  the 
Cardinal's  reply  to  Lazarus'  denunciation  of  the  Chris- 
tians ;  Leopold's  romanza,  sung  to  Rachel ;  the  choral  drink- 
ing song  at  the  fountain  which  is  flowing  wine,  and  the 
music  hailing  the  Emperor's  arrival.  In  the  second  act, 
the  prayer  at  the  celebration  of  the  Passover  at  Lazarus' 
house;  the  duet  of  Leopold  and  Rachel;  Rachel's  lovely  aria, 
"Ah  Padre!  Oh  Ciel!  Fermate!"  ("O  Father!  O 
Heaven!")  and  the  anathema  of  Lazarus  are  particularly 
impressive.  In  the  third  act,  the  Cardinal's  malediction, 
and  in  the  fourth  act,  the  duet  of  Lazarus  and  the  Car- 
dinal and  Lazarus'  welcome  of  death  are  also  worthy  of 
mention. 


LUCIA  DI  LAMMERMOOR 

"  Lucia  di  Lammermoor  "  or  "  Lucy  of  Lammermoor  " 
is  a  tragic  opera  in  three  acts,  the  music  by  Gaetano  Donizetti 
and  the  text  by  Salvator  Cammerano,  derived  from  Scott's 
novel,  "  The  Bride  of  Lammermoor,"  It  was  first  produced 
in  Naples  in  1835.  It  is  generally  acceded  that  it  holds 
first  place  among  the  composer's  sixty-six  operas. 

CHARACTERS. 

Edgar  of  Ravenswood. 

Henry  Ashton,  Lord  of  Lammermoor,  brother  of  Lucy. 

Norman,   his   chief  retainer. 

Raymond,  tutor  to  Lucy. 

Lord  Arthur  Bucklaw,  betrothed  to  Lucy. 

Lucy  of  Lammermoor. 

Alice,  her  attendant. 

Friends,  relatives  and  retainers  of  Henry  Ashton. 

The  scene,  as  in  Scott's  novel,  is  laid  in  Scotland  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  Sir  Henry  Ashton 
of  Lammermoor  has  arranged  to  marry  his  sister  Lucy  to 
Lord  Arthur  Bucklaw  for  the  two-fold  purpose  of  mending 
the  family  fortunes  and  getting  exemption  for  certain 
political  indiscretions.  To  his  horror,  he  discovers  that 
Lucy  has  already  engaged  her  affections  to  his  hereditary 
enemy.  Sir  Edgar  Ravenswood,  who  has  saved  her  from 
the  attack  of  an  enraged  bull.  The  lovers  have  met  many 
times  secretly  and  have  come  to  an  understanding  on   the 


162  OPERAS 

eve  of  Edgar's  departure  for  France  on  an  embassy.  Edgar 
generously  has  sworn  to  Lucy  to  forego  his  oath  of 
vengeance  upon  her  brother  for  his  evil  deeds  against  him 
and  they  are  pledged  to  each  other. 

Henry  resorts  to  desperate  methods  to  gain  his  end. 
He  intercepts  Edgar's  letters  and,  finally,  when  Lucy's  mind 
is  fit  to  harbor  suspicions,  he  shows  her  a  forged  letter  to 
prove  her  lover's  infidelity.  With  this,  his  plea  that  only 
her  marriage  with  Bucklaw  can  save  him  from  the  execu- 
tioner, falls  with  greater  force  and  she  consents  to  offer 
herself  as  a  sacrifice.  The  marriage  papers  are  scarcely 
signed,  however,  when  Edgar  suddenly  appears  to  claim  his 
bride  and  Lucy  confesses  what  she  has  done.  In  a  fury  of 
grief  and  anger,  he  tears  his  ring  from  her  finger,  tramples 
the  marriage  contract  under  foot  and  having  challenged  her 
brother,  leaves  with  many  imprecations  upon  the  traitorous 
house  of  Lammermoor. 

At  night  an  ominous  sound  is  heard  in  the  apartment 
of  Lucy  and  her  husband  and  the  attendants  rushing  in, 
find  the  bride,  still  in  her  wedding  robes,  with  a  dripping 
dagger  in  her  hands.  She  has  gone  mad  and  has  stabbed 
Lord  Arthur,  who  is  dying.  After  a  little  while  the  reali- 
zation of  her  dreadful  deed  comes  to  her  and  the  weight  of 
her  remorse  kills  her.  Edgar,  waiting  among  the  tombs 
of  his  ancestors  for  the  time  of  his  duel  with  Henry  to 
arrive,  hears  the  tolling  bells  from  the  castle  and  learns  of 
the  tragedy  from  a  mournful  company  of  departing  wed- 
ding guests.  Disconsolate  through  the  death  of  Lucy,  he 
commits  suicide. 

"  Lucia  di  Lammermoor  "  is  the  only  one  of  Donizetti's 
operas  that  can  be  said  to  retain  permanent  place  today  in 
the  operatic  repertory  of  countries  outside  of  Italy.  It  is 
the  beloved  of  colorature  sopranos,  the  role  of  Lucy  afford- 
ing unequaled  opportunities  for  the  display  of  vocal  agility 
and  tonal  beauty.  The  first  aria  "  Regnava  nol  silenzio " 
("  Silence  lay  sleeping ")  sustained  and  serene  in  charac- 
ter,  followed  by  the  "  Quando   rapita   in  estasi  "    ("  When 


LUCIA  DI  LAMMERMOOR  163 

all  my  heart  in  ecstasy"),  which  is  florid  and  showy,  the 
duet  with  Henry  in  the  second  act  and  the  great  "  Mad 
Scene  "  which  makes  the  highest  possible  demands  upon  a 
singer's  technical  abilities  and  permits  the  most  unbounded 
display  of  voice  and  facility,  these  are  numbers  which  put 
to  the  test  the  powers  of  the  soprano  singing  the  role  of 
Lucy  and  which  alone  suffice  to  keep  the  opera  perma- 
nently in  the  repertory.  The  final  scene  for  Edgar  sup- 
plies a  similarly  grateful  chance  for  the  tenor,  while  arias 
in  the  first  and  second  acts  give  the  baritone  who  sings 
Henry  an  opportunity  to  prove  his  worth.  The  sextet 
which  follows  the  reappearance  of  Edgar  after  the  marriage 
contract  has  been  signed  is  acknowledged  to  be  the  master- 
piece of  the  entire  work.  It  is  of  unfailing  beauty  through- 
out and  is  of  real  dramatic  intensity.  It  rings  true  and 
has  few  equals  in  the  range  of  opera,  whether  the  opera  be 
Italian,  German  or  French.  Donizetti's  music  has  been 
liberally  criticized  because  it  frequently  is  light  and  cheery 
when  the  text  to  which  it  is  set  is  strikingly  somber  and 
lugubrious.  The  wealth  of  melody  in  the  score  and  the 
freshness  and  beauty  of  that  melody  have  kept  the  opera 
ever  acceptable  to  the  public,  however,  and  its  retention  in 
the  standard  repertory  seems  assured  for  a  long  time  to 
come. 


LES  HUGUENOTS 

"  Les  Huguenots  "  or  "  The  Huguenots,"  a  grand  opera 
in  four  acts,  the  score  by  Giacomo  Meyerbeer  and  the 
Hbretto  by  Scribe  and  fimile  Deschamps,  was  first  presented 
at  Academie  in  Paris,  Feb.  29,  1836.  It  has  since, 
owing  to  its  great  popularity,  had  numberless  performances 
but  occasionally  has  been  prohibited  on  account  of  its  plot, 
the  Bourbons  being  among  those  who  object  to  it. 

CHARACTERS. 

Count  de  St.  Bris,  a  Catholic  nobleman. 

Valentina,  his  daughter. 

Marguerite  de  Valois,  betrothed  to  Henry  of  Navarre. 

Urban,  Marguerite's  page. 

Count  de  Nevers,  a  Catholic,  betrothed  to  Valentina. 

Raoul  de  Nanges,  a  Huguenot  captain. 

Marcel,  Raoul's  Huguenot  servant 

De  Cosse. 

De  Bretz. 

Meru. 

Tavannes. 

Maurevert. 

Chorus  of  Catholic  and  Huguenot  soldiers  and  women, 

maids    of    honor,    nobles    and    gentlemen,    students, 

night-watch,  populace  and  monks. 

The  action  takes  place  in  Paris  and  Touraine  in  1572, 
just  previous  to  and  during  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 


166  OPERAS 

mew.  The  drama  is  concerned  with  the  personal  motives 
and  passions  which  led  directly  to  that  most  horrible  affair 
of  all  history.  The  De  Medicis  and  the  Huguenot 
leader,  Admiral  Coligny,  apparently  have  made  peace  and, 
in  a  moment  of  calm  preceding  the  storm,  we  first  meet 
the  hero,  Raoul  de  Nanges,  and  his  faithful  Marcel  in  the 
Catholic  stronghold,  the  castle  of  the  Count  de  Nevers. 
There  is  a  banquet  in  progress  and  the  talk  turns  to  senti- 
mental themes,  each  guest  being  required  to  give  the  name 
of  his  lady-love.  This  Raoul  cannot  do  for  the  simple 
reason  that  he  is  ignorant  of  the  identity  of  the  woman 
who  has  engaged  his  affections.  In  a  lull  in  the  revelry  he 
tells  of  a  fair  girl  he  once  rescued  from  the  rude  attentions 
of  a  carousing  band  of  students,  of  her  gratitude  and  of  her 
beauty  and  graciousness,  which  he  cannot  forget.  Marcel 
is  not  pleased  to  find  his  master  so  content  in  Catholic  com- 
pany and,  half  in  warning,  he  sings  for  the  revelers  a  fanati- 
cal Huguenot  ballad.  At  this  juncture,  a  lady  comes  to 
interview  De  Nevers  and  the  breathless  Raoul  recognizes 
the  unknown  object  of  his  love.  He  is  grievously  disap- 
pointed, as  he  can  look  upon  her  coming  in  this  fashion  only 
as  an  indication  that  she  is  not  worthy  of  his  respect.  The 
truth  of  the  matter  is  that  she  is  Valentina,  daughter  of 
the  Catholic  Count  de  St.  Bris,  the  promised  bride  of  De 
Nevers,  whom  she  does  not  love  and  whom  she  has  come  to 
implore  to  set  her  free.  Meantime,  Catherine  de  Medici's 
daughter,  Marguerite  of  Valois,  believes  that  she  has  discov- 
ered a  plan  which  may  tend  to  ease  the  ominously  strained 
relations  existing  between  Catholics  and  Protestants.  She 
will  effect  a  union  between  the  popular  Huguenot  Raoul 
and  Valentina,  daughter  of  a  representative  Catholic  family. 
Since  the  lady  wishes  to  be  free  from  her  former  engage- 
ment, the  matter  presents  less  of  difficulty.  The  Queen 
sends  her  page  to  summon  Raoul  to  her  presence.  He 
listens  to  her  project  and  consents  to  be  party  to  it  but 
when  he  discovers  Valentina  to  be  the  lady  he  just  has  seen 
at  De  Nevers'  house,  he  refuses  to  enter  into  an  engage- 


LES  HUGUENOTS  167 

merit,  which  before  the  arousing  of  his  suspicions,  would 
have  made  him  supremely  happy.  The  proud  Count  de  St. 
Bris,  deeply  indignant  at  the  insult,  challenges  him  but 
Queen  Marguerite  prevents  the  duel. 

The  marriage  of  Valentina  and  De  Nevers  is  urged 
with  renewed  vigor  and  the  girl  goes  to  pass  the  day  in 
supplication  at  the  chapel.  Raoul  has  challenged  St.  Bris 
and  the  latter  plans  to  fight  him  with  poisoned  weapons  and 
thus  to  assassinate  him.  Valentina  overhears  the  plotting 
and  manages  to  warn  Marcel  of  the  danger.  He,  with  a 
party  of  Huguenots,  lies  in  wait,  to  aid  Raoul  when  the 
conflict  begins.  The  contestants  meet  and  a  general  fight 
is  about  to  take  place  when  Queen  Marguerite  appears  and 
again  prevents  it.  Raoul  then  learns  the  truth  concerning 
Valentina's  love  for  him  and  the  reason  for  her  visit  to  De 
Nevers.  But  the  knowledge  comes  too  late,  for  the  wedding 
festivities  are  begun,  the  bridegroom  and  his  friends  having 
already  arrived,  and  Valentina  and  De  Nevers  depart  for 
the  marriage  ceremony.  Raoul  visits  Valentina  for  a  last 
farewell.  They  are  surprised  by  the  entrance  of  St.  Bris, 
De  Nevers,  the  priests  and  the  Catholic  conspirators.  Raoul, 
hidden  by  Valentina,  overhears  the  plans  for  the  St.  Bar- 
tholomew massacre  and,  unmindful  of  her  entreaties,  rushes 
out  to  warn  his  friends  and  fellow  Huguenots.  He  first 
seeks  Marguerite  and  the  King  to  implore  their  aid  but  the 
massacre  is  already  under  way,  Admiral  Coligny  has  been 
shot  from  a  window  of  the  palace  and  the  Huguenot  dead 
are  lying  in  the  streets.  Raoul  at  last  finds  himself  at  the 
door  of  a  church  to  which  many  of  his  brethren  have  fled. 
Here  he  meets  the  wounded  Marcel  and  learns  of  the  death 
of  De  Nevers.  Here,  too,  comes  Valentina  seeking  him  and 
willing  to  accept  his  fate.  Marcel  blesses  and  unites  the 
lovers,  and  chanting  together  the  Lutheran  hymn,  "  Ein* 
teste  Burg,"  they  go  forth  to  perish  in  the  massacre. 

"  The  Huguenots "  which,  in  the  United  States  and 
England,  is  usually  given  in  curtailed  form,  the  performance 
ending  with  the  duet  for  Raoul  and  Valentina  in  the  fourth 


168  OPERAS 

act,  is  generally  acknowledged  Meyerbeer's  masterpiece.  It 
contains  many  pages  which  are  of  true  dramatic  power  and 
undeniable  operatic  effectiveness  but  also  many  which  are 
trivial,  bombastic  and  banal.  It  permits  of  indulgence  in 
virtually  unlimited  stage  spectacle  and  display  and  the 
employment  of  a  showy  cast  of  principals,  hence  its  popular- 
ity in  this  country  and  England. 

The  music  is  much  of  it  pompous  and  insincere,  but 
popularly  admired  in  the  score  are  Raoul's  romanza  "  Piu 
bianca  del  velo  "  ("Fairer  than  the  fairest  lily"),  sung  in 
the  opening  act  to  the  obbligato  of  a  viola  d'amore;  Marcel's 
"  Piff,  Paff,"  in  which  he  describes  battles  he  has  seen ;  the 
familiar  "Page's  Song,"  "  Nobil  donna"  ("Noble  is  the 
lady  fair"),  sung  by  the  Queen's  page  Urban;  Margue- 
rite's florid  "Aquesta  voce  sola "  ("  For  at  that  word  of 
Power");  the  duet  for  Marguerite  and  Raoul;  the  "Rata- 
plan "  and  "Ave  Maria "  choruses  in  the  third  act  (bril- 
liant examples  of  Meyerbeer's  love  for  show  and  contrasts)  ; 
the  duet  for  Valentina  and  Marcel;  the  ballet  and  wedding 
music  with  which  the  third  act  closes ;  the  sonorous  "  Bless- 
ing of  the  Swords "  in  the  scene  of  conspiracy,  and  the 
great  duet  for  Valentina  and  Raoul,  the  finest  number  in 
the  entire  score  and  one  which  shows  Meyerbeer's  powers 
at  his  best. 


THE  POSTILION  OF  LONGJUMEAU 

"  The  Postilion  of  Longjumeau,"  a  comic  opera  in 
three  acts,  music  by  Adolphe  Charles  Adam  and  text  by 
De  Leuven  and  Brunswick,  was  presented  at  the  Opera 
Comique,  Paris,  Oct.  13,  1836. 

CHARACTERS. 
In  the  First  Act. 
Chapelou,  the  postilion. 
Bijou,  a  wheelwright. 

Marquis  de  Courcy,  Chamberlain  to  Louis  XV. 
Madelaine,  mistress  of  the  village  inn. 
Peasants,  male  and  female. 

In  the  Second  and  Third  Acts. 
Chapelou,  under  the  name  of  St.  Phar,  principal  tenor 

at  the  grand  opera. 
Bijou,  under  the  name  of  Alcindor,  the  primo  basso. 
Marquis  de  Courcy. 
Madelaine,  as  Madame  de  la  Tour. 
Rose,  Madam's  maid. 

Singers    and    coryphees    at    the    opera,    neighbors    and 
friends  of  Madame  de   la  Tour,  soldiers,   domestics. 
Time,  1776  and  1786.    Place,  the  village  of  Longjumeau 
and  Paris. 

The  quaint  little  story  of  this  opera  is  as  follows: 
Chapelou  has  just  married  a  young-  peasant  girl,  Madelaine, 
who  lives  in  the  post-house  at  Longjumeau.  According  to 
a  provincial  custom,  the  bride  and  groom  are  separated.,  the 


170  OPERAS 

former  seized  by  her  friends  and  taken  away  and  the  latter 
commanded  to  entertain  his  comrades  with  a  song.  This 
he  is  well  fitted  to  do,  for  he  has  a  splendid  voice.  There 
is  in  the  hostelry  at  the  moment  the  Intendant-General  of 
Louis  XV.,  who  is  in  quest  of  a  tenor  for  the  opera  at 
Paris  and  he  decides  to  gain  the  bridegroom  for  his  own. 
Chapelou  is  so  dazzled  by  his  picture  of  the  wealth  and 
glory  awaiting  him,  that  he  consents  to  abandon  his  bride 
and  to  go  and  claim  them.  He  entrusts  the  task  of  telling 
Madelaine  of  his  departure  to  Bijou,  who  is  jealous  of  him 
for  winning  her.     He  then  drives  away. 

The  lady,  however,  is  but  little  consoled  by  his 
promise  to  return.  She  quits  Longjumeau  and  goes  to  live 
with  an  old  aunt,  who  dies  and  leaves  her  a  fortune.  She 
educates  herself  and  ten  years  later,  with  many  added 
charms,  a  high  position  and  the  name  of  Mme,  Latour,  goes 
to  Paris  to  punish  her  husband,  whom  she  cannot  forget. 
Madelaine  recognizes  St.  Phar,  the  lion  of  the  Grand 
Opera,  as  the  one-time  postilion  of  Longjumeau.  She  is 
presented  to  him  and  receives  his  entire  approval.  He 
wishes  to  marry  her  but  hesitates  at  bigamy  and  finally 
hits  upon  the  scheme  of  having  Bourbon,  a  chorus  singer 
at  the  opera,  assume  the  garb  of  a  priest  and  perform  the 
ceremony.  This  is  brought  to  naught  by  the  bride,  who 
locks  Bourbon  up  and  secures  the  services  of  a  genuine 
ecclesiastic.  The  Marquis  de  Courcy,  who  has  designs  on 
the  hand  of  Mme.  Latour,  soon  discovers  that  St.  Phar  is 
a  bigamist  and  has  been  arrested.  But  Madelaine  saves 
the  day  by  coming  forward  in  her  peasant  dress  and  the 
sorry  hero  finds  that  he  has  only  remarried  his  own  wife, 
who  forgives  him  for  his  perfidy  and  all  ends  well. 

The  opera  is  tuneful,  witty  and  graceful,  the  story 
affording  a  happy  vehicle  for  Adam's  rollicking  fun.  He 
produced  over  fifty  operatic  works  but  this  is  the  best  of 
them. 

The  favorite  numbers  are,  in  the  first  act,  Madelaine's 
song,  "  Husband  ever  dear ;  "  the  famous  postilion  song,  sung 


THE  POSTILION  OF  LONGJUMEAU  171 

by  Chapelou  with  whip  snapping  accompaniment;  Made- 
laine's  air  from  the  balcony,  "  Come,  come,  my  love  to  me ;  " 
in  the  second  act,  the  humorous  rehearsal  scene,  which 
includes  Chapelou's  "  Beneath  a  spreading  tree  "  and  Akin- 
dor's  (Bijou)  "The  Primo  Basso,  yes,  am  I."  In  the 
third  act,  the  most  interesting  passage  is  the  trio,  or  rather 
duo,  sung  by  St.  Phar  and  Madelaine,  the  latter  imperson- 
ating in  the  dark  both  the  peasant  maid  and  the  great  lady, 
much  to  the  bewilderment  of  her  husband. 


BENVENUTO  CELLINI 

"  Benvenuto  Cellini,"  an  opera  in  two  acts,  with  music 
by  Hector  Berlioz  and  text  by  Wailly  and  Barbier,  was 
first  produced  in  Paris  in  1838. 

CHARACTERS. 

Benvenuto  Cellini,  a  Florentine  goldsmith. 
Giacomo  Balducci,  the  Papal  treasurer. 
Fieramosca,  the  Papal  sculptor. 
Cardinal  Salviati,  an  officer  of  the  Court  of  Rome. 
Francisco,     )  /-,   ,•  . 

Bernardino     i    ^^^  workmen  of  the  studio  of  Cellmi. 

Pompeo,  a  bravo,  the  friend  of  Fieramosca. 

An  Innkeeper. 

Teresa,  daughter  of  Balducci. 

Ascanio,  the  pupil  of  Cellini. 

Pantomime  personages. 

The  counterfeit  treasurer. 

Harlequin. 

Punchinello. 

Columbine. 

Two  fighters. 

Servants    and    neighbors    of    Balducci,    metai    workers, 

founders,  maskers,  Roman  archers,  monks,  members 

of  the  Cardinal's  suite,  people. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Rome  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  on 
Monday,  Shrove  Tuesday  and  Ash  Wednesday.     Benvenuto 


174  OPERAS 

Cellini,  the  celebrated  Florentine  sculptor,  has  been  sum- 
moned to  Rome  on  professional  business.  He  is  in  love 
with  Teresa,  the  daughter  of  old  Balducci,  the  Papal  treas- 
urer, but  the  girl's  hand  is  sought  by  Fieramosca,  the  Papal 
sculptor.  The  father  favors  the  latter,  declaring  that  he 
would  a  thousand  times  rather  hang  than  have  Cellini  for 
a  son-in-law,  but,  as  sometimes  happens,  the  daughter  does 
not  reflect  the  paternal  inclinations.  On  the  day  upon  which 
the  story  opens,  the  father  and  daughter  have  been  discuss- 
ing the  two  suitors  and  Balducci  departs  to  calm  his 
ruffled  feelings  in  the  open  air.  Cellini  calls  and  is 
delighted  to  find  Teresa  alone.  She  tells  him  of  her  father's 
predilection  for  his  rival  and  Cellini  proposes  an  elopement. 
They  plan  to  put  this  idea  into  execution  on  Mardi  Gras 
evening  at  the  Piazza  di  Colonna,  where  Teresa  shall  be 
met  by  a  monk  in  a  white  cowl  (Cellini),  accompanied  by 
a  brown  Capuchin  friar  (his  pupil  Ascanio).  They  will 
then  fly  to  Florence  and  will  there  be  happy  evermore. 

They  say  good-by,  with  many  vows  not  to  fail  each 
other  on  the  morrow,  little  suspecting  that  Fieramosca, 
hidden  near,  has  overheard  everything.  Balducci  returns 
and  Cellini  manages  to  depart  and  yet  avoid  the  paternal 
eye.  But  Fieramosca  is  not  so  fortunate  and  he  finds  his 
presence  in  the  house  at  this  late  hour  remarkably  difficult 
of  explanation.  Balducci  opens  the  window  and  calls  for 
help  to  punish  the  libertine  and  a  swarm  of  servants  and 
neighbor  women  coming  in,  armed  with  lanterns  and 
brooms,  make  life  miserable  for  the  sculptor  until  he  man- 
ages to  escape  down  an  unguarded  passageway. 

The  next  scene  shows  Cellini,  with  his  pupils  and  com- 
panions, making  merry  at  the  tavern.  They  overlook  the 
fact  that  they  have  no  money  to  pay  for  the  wine  but  the 
innkeeper  brings  this  condition  forcibly  to  their  minds. 
Cellini  is  trying  to  find  a  way  out  of  the  embarrassment 
v^hen  Ascanio  appears  and  is  called  upon  for  assistance. 
He  agrees  to  deliver  the  gold  sent  by  the  Pope  to  recom- 
pense Cellini  for  the  statue  of  Perseus,  upon  which  he  is 


BENVENUTO  CELLINI  175 

engaged,  if  the  promise  be  given  that  the  work  shall  be 
completed  by  the  morrow.  This  promise  Cellini  gives  but 
when  Ascanio  hands  over  the  money,  the  sum  is  so  paltry 
that  there  is  general  indignation.  They  easily  trace  this 
niggardliness  in  payment  to  the  influence  of  the  parsimoni- 
ous Balducci  and  decide  to  caricature  him  at  the  pantomime 
that  evening.  Meantime,  Fieramosca  and  his  friend  Pom- 
peo,  the  bravo,  have  planned  to  assume  the  disguise  of 
Cellini  and  Ascanio  and  to  carry  off  Teresa. 

The  play  at  Cassandro's  Theatre  proves  a  great  suc- 
cess. Balducci  and  Teresa  are  present  and  the  former  is  by 
no  means  flattered  to  find  himself  the  hero  of  a  piece  called 
"  King  Midas,  or  the  Ass's  Ears."  He  watches  the  play 
with  rising  anger  until,  at  some  especially  choice  compli- 
ment, he  loses  command  of  himself  and  rushes  upon  the 
stage,  brandishing  his  cane.  Cellini  takes  advantage  of  the 
fracas  to  approach  Teresa  but  Fieramosca  chooses  the  same 
moment  and  a  fight  ensues,  in  which  Pompeo  is  stabbed  by 
Cellini  in  self-defense.  Cellini  is  arrested  but  cannon-shots 
are  fired  to  announce  Ash  Wednesday,  the  carnival  lights 
are  extinguished  and  in  the  sudden  darkness  he  manages 
to  escape.  Balducci  seeing  a  white-garbed  monk  and  think- 
ing him  the  culprit,  hands  him  over  to  the  police.  It 
happens  to  be  the  luckless  Fieramosca.  Meantime,  Teresa 
is  conducted  by  Ascanio  to  Cellini's  workshop. 

Here  the  second  act,  which  takes  place  on  Ash  Wednes- 
day, is  played.  A  plaster  cast  of  Cellini's  Perseus  is  seen 
and  the  molders  are  busily  at  work.  But  the  master  is 
absent  and  Teresa  is  in  an  agony  of  apprehension. 

Cellini  arrives,  his  white  garb  spattered  with  blood,  and 
tells  of  his  hairbreadth  escapes.  He  declares  it  to  be  an 
immediate  necessity  for  him  to  leave  the  city  but  Ascanio 
in  consternation  reminds  him  of  his  promise  to  have  the 
statue  finished  the  next  day.  Cellini  jauntily  consigns  the 
statue,  together  with  the  Pope  and  the  law,  to  the  devil. 
Balducci  and  Fieramosca  arrive  inopportunely  and  the 
father  calls  upon  his  prospective  son-in-law  to  destroy  the 


176  OPERAS 

wretch,  but  upon  Cellini's  promise  to  "  help  him  into  Hades  " 
if  he  tries,  Fieramosca  shows  the  white  feather. 

The  Cardinal  enters  to  see  how  the  statue  is  progress- 
ing. Seeing  that  Cellini  has  been  dilatory,  he  declares  that 
another  shall  finish  it,  and  Cellini  replies  that  rather  than 
give  it  into  another's  hands  he  will  shatter  it  into  bits.  He 
is  raising  his  hammer  to  make  good  his  word  when  the 
frightened  Cardinal  promises  him  whatever  he  wishes  if  he 
will  desist.  He  promptly  asks  for  absolution,  for  Teresa 
and  for  an  opportunity  to  finish  the  statue.  The  Cardinal 
grants  him  until  evening  to  finish  the  work,  with  hanging 
as  an  alternative.  It  is  already  late  and  everybody,  Cellini 
included,  regards  his  fate  as  sealed. 

They  set  to  work,  however,  but  the  men  work  only 
half-heartedly  and  Cellini  tries  vainly  to  start  a  gay  tune 
for  inspiration.  No  great  additional  encouragement  is 
afforded  by  the  arrival  of  Fieramosca,  and  two  officers  with 
huge  rapiers,  who  watch  proceedings  and  repeat  Cellini's 
words,  "  I  come  to  help  you  into  hell."  The  work  goes  on 
madly.  The  shop  is  a  scene  of  breathless  hurry.  The  gold 
is  melting  in  the  furnace  and  the  workmen  come  to  demand 
more  metal.  Cellini's  heart  sinks  and  Teresa  is  in  terror  but 
Cellini  saves  the  day  by  sacrificing  his  other  masterpieces 
which  are  consigned  to  the  furnace.  Perseus  is  achieved 
and  Cellini  wins.  The  Cardinal  grants  him  pardon,  and 
his  one-time  enemies,  Balducci  and  Fieramosca,  add  their 
voices  to  the  general  rejoicing. 

"  Benvenuto  Cellini,"  Berlioz'  first  opera,  was  with- 
drawn after  three  representations  but  in  recent  years  has 
had  a  number  of  successful  revivals. 

Notable  numbers  in  the  score  are  the  overture,  which 
was  written  later  and  which,  under  the  title  of  "  La  Carnival 
Romain,"  has  frequent  performance  in  the  concert-room; 
the  terzetto  of  the  first  act ;  Teresa's  aria,  "  Entre  I'amour 
et  le  devoir  "  ("  Between  my  love  and  my  duty  ")  ;  the  gold- 
smith's chorus  sung  in  the  Place  Colonne,  "  La  terre  aux 
beaux  jours  "("The  earth  on  days  so  fair  ");"  Cettesomme 


BENVENUTO  CELLINI  177 

t'est  due"  ("This  the  sum  that's  due  you"),  sung  by 
Ascanio;  Fieramosca's  number,  "Vive  I'escrime!"  ("Hail 
to  the  Sword")  ;  the  love  duet  of  Cellini  and  Teresa,  "Ah! 
le  ciel,  cher  epoux  "  ("Ah!  'tis  heaven,  dear  love")  and  the 
music  of  the  Carnival  scene. 


CZAR  UND  ZIMMERMANN 

"  Czar  und  Zimmermann  "  ("  Czar  and  Carpenter  "), 
or  "  Peter  the  Great  in  Saardam,"  a  comic  opera  in  three 
acts  with  text  and  music  by  Gustav  Albert  Lortzing,  was 
first  presented  in  Berlin  in  1839. 

CHARACTERS. 

Peter  the  Great,  Emperor  of  Russia,  masquerading 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Peter  Michaelow,  a  car- 
penter. 

Peter  Ivanhoflf,  a  Russian  carpenter. 

Van  Bett,  Burgomaster  of  Saardam. 

Maria,  his  niece. 

Mrs.  Brown. 

Admiral  Lefort,  Russian  ambassador. 

Lord  Syndham,  English  ambassador. 

Marquis  de  Chateauneuf,  French  ambassador. 

Chorus  of  carpenters  and  inhabitants  of  Saardam. 

Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  weary  of  pomp  and  circum- 
stance, has  disguised  himself  as  a  carpenter,  has  assumed  the 
name  of  Peter  Michaelow  and  has  come  to  Saardam  in 
Holland,  where  he  is  employed  as  a  ship-builder.  By  his 
side  labors  Peter  Ivanhoff,  a  deserter  from  the  Russian 
army.  The  opening  scene  shows  the  carpenters  at  work 
and  singing  of  their  contentment.  Ivanhoff  would  share 
in  the  general  peace  of  mind  except  that  the  wiles  of  Maria, 
who  has  stolen  his  heart,  prove  sadly  disturbing  at  times. 


180  OPERAS 

Her  uncle,  Van  Bett,  the  burgomaster,  makes  his 
appearance  and  in  an  aria,  unblushingly  confides  his  merits 
to  the  world.  His  importance  in  municipal  matters  weighs 
upon  him  heavily  and  his  appreciation  of  his  own  subtlety 
and  powers  of  stratagem  is  complete.  In  such  veiled 
allusions  as  "  I  and  the  law  are  known  to  be  the  same,"  and 
"  Indeed,  my  wit  is  never  failing,"  his  modesty  reveals  itself. 

It  develops  that  the  English  ambassador.  Lord  Synd- 
ham,  has  entrusted  him  with  the  task  of  searching  out  a 
Russian  carpenter  named  Peter.  Syndham,  by  the  way,  has 
been  sent  by  his  government  to  find  the  Czar  and  to  press 
him  to  agree  to  certain  important  matters.  In  case  the 
agreement  is  not  forthcoming,  Peter  is  to  be  seized  and 
imprisoned.  The  French  ambassador,  the  Marquis  de 
Chateauneuf,  has  come  on  a  similar  mission  to  Saardam, 
the  report  that  the  Czar  is  there  in  disguise  having  been 
widely  circulated.  Van  Bett  is  aghast  to  find  two  Russian 
Peters  but  with  characteristic  infallibility,  he  discerns  a  way 
out  of  the  dilemma,  choosing  Ivanhoff  because  of  his  more 
villainous  countenance  and  introducing  him  to  Syndham. 
The  Marquis  is  more  successful,  for  he  surprises  the  Czar 
into  a  betrayal  of  his  identity  by  announcing  serious  Russian 
reverses.  The  Marquis,  by  the  way,  has  also  fallen  victim 
to  Maria's  charms  and  makes  ardent  love  to  her. 

A  threatened  rebellion  at  home  making  the  Czar's 
immediate  return  advisable,  Lefort,  his  ambassador,  comes 
to  fetch  him.  The  interest  develops  around  two  conferences 
at  a  public  house.  At  one  table  are  seated  the  Czar,  Lefort, 
and  the  French  ambassador,  at  another  Ivanhoff,  Syndham 
and  Van  Bett,  the  curiosity  of  the  last  being  keenly  roused  by 
such  expressions  from  the  lips  of  the  Englishman  as  "  sire," 
and  "majesty."  The  real  Czar  has  acceded  to  the  requests 
of  the  French  ambassador,  the  only  problem  remaining 
unsolved  being  how  to  take  a  safe  departure  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  English.  Syndham,  earnestly  conferring 
with  the  mock  Czar,  fancies  that  he  had  scored  a  diplomatic 


CZAR   UND   ZIMMERMANN  181 

victory,  for  Ivanhoff,  to  save  himself,  agrees  to  everything 
and  is  rewarded  with  a  passport. 

Van  Bett  is  upset  by  the  presence  in  town  of  three  such 
active  strangers  as  the  ambassadors  and  his  sensibihties  are 
hurt  by  the  fact  that  Syndham  has  forgotten  to  pay  him  for 
his  invaluable  services  in  finding  the  Czar.  His  unrest 
evolves  into  an  attempt  to  make  an  arrest.  Overwhelmed 
to  learn  that  his  three  principal  suspects,  the  ambassadors, 
are  men  of  rank  and  importance,  he  turns  upon  the  Czar 
and  Ivanhoff  and  the  act  ends  in  great  excitement,  the  true 
Czar  pushing  Van  Bett  over  the  table. 

Act  III  finds  Van  Bett  in  the  midst  of  preparations 
for  a  reception  in  honor  of  Ivanhoff,  whom  he  now  thinks 
to  be  the  Czar.  Ivanhoff  and  Maria  plan  a  surreptitious 
departure  and  the  former,  tired  of  glory  and  finding  it 
possible  to  circumvent  Van  Bett,  determines  to  make  use  of 
his  passport.  The  real  Czar,  having  discovered  the  existence 
of  this  valuable  document,  gets  it  by  strategy,  giving  Ivan- 
hoff another  paper  with  orders  not  to  open  it  until  an  hour 
has  elapsed. 

At  the  reception,  while  Van  Bett  is  directing  the 
performance  of  an  original  musical  composition  with  great 
self-satisfaction,  the  reports  of  cannon  are  heard  and  in  the 
distance  is  seen  a  ship,  upon  which  may  be  discerned  the 
forms  of  the  Czar,  Lefort  and  the  French  ambassador, 
taking  an  unannounced  departure  on  Ivanhoff's  passport. 
That  worthy  hastily  opens  his  supposed  passport  to  find 
instead  his  appointment  to  an  important  position  near  the 
Czar  and  the  royal  consent  to  his  marriage  with  Maria. 

"  Czar  und  Zimmermann "  is  a  stock  piece  in  every 
German  theatre.  The  principal  numbers  in  the  first  act  are: 
The  Carpenter's  song,  "  Grip  your  axe ;  "  Maria's  song,  "Ah ! 
jealousy  is  a  bad  companion ;  "  Van  Bett's  aria,  "Ah !  Sancta 
Justitia,  I  shall  go  raving ;  "  and  the  duet  of  Van  Bett  and 
Ivanhoff,  "Shall  I  make  a  full  confession?"  In  the  second 
act  occur  the  chorus,  "  Long  live  joy  and  pleasure ; "  the 
tenor  romanza,  "Fare  thee  well;"  the  sextet,  "The  work 


182  OPERAS 

that  we're  beginning  "  and  Maria's  bridal  song,  "  Charming 
maiden,  why  do  blushes."  In  the  last  act  are  the  aria  and 
chorus,  "  To  greet  our  hero  with  a  stately  reception ;  "  and 
the  Czar's  song  "  In  childhood,  with  crown  and  with  scepter 
I  played." 


LA  FILLE  DU  REGIMENT 

"La  Fille  du  Regiment"  or  "The  Daughter  of  the 
Regiment "  is  a  light  opera  in  two  acts,  with  music  by 
Gaetano  Donizetti  and  text  by  Bayard  and  St.  Georges.  It 
was  produced  at  the  Opera  Comique,  Paris,  Feb.  11,  1840. 

CHARACTERS. 

Marie,  vivandiere   of  the   Twenty- First,  "  Daughter  of 

the  Regiment." 
Marchioness  de  Berkenfield,  mother  of  Marie. 
Tony,  an  old  sergeant  of  the  Twenty-First. 
Duchess   of   Crackenthorp. 
Corporal  Cartouche. 
Hortensius. 
Pontoon. 

Gillian,  a  peasant. 
Soldiers,  peasants,  a  notary. 

The  scene  of  this  merry  opera  is  laid  in  the  Tyrol 
during  its  occupation  by  the  French  in  1815.  Marie,  when 
a  baby,  was  picked  up  by  Sergeant  Sulpice  on  the  battle-field 
after  an  encounter  and  has  been  faithfully  cared  for  by  the 
soldiers,  though  rocked  in  a  cap  of  steel  in  lieu  of  a  cradle 
and  lulled  to  sleep  by  rolling  drums.  She  has  now  grown 
to  womanhood  and  assumed  the  dignity  of  vivandiere  being 
claimed  as  the  "  adopted  daughter  "  of  the  gallant  Twenty- 
First  Regiment.  Tony,  a  Swiss  peasant,  who  has  saved  Marie 
from  a  fall  over  a  precipice,  is  in  love  with  her  and  tries  to 


184  OPERAS 

join  the  regiment  to  be  near  her.  He  is  arrested  as  a  spy 
and  sentenced  to  be  hanged  but  is  speedily  turned  into  a 
hero  by  the  girl's  story  of  her  rescue.  A  member  of  the 
regiment,  he  makes  an  opportunity  to  woo  its  daughter, 
and  finds  his  reception  hearty.  The  soldiers  grow  as  fond 
of  him  as  they  are  of  the  mischievous,  spirited  Marie  and 
resolve  to  assist  him  in  his  suit.  But  just  as  everything 
seems  most  auspicious,  the  Marchioness  of  Berkenfield 
appears  inopportunely  and  claims  that  she  is  Marie's  aunt, 
giving  as  proof  a  letter  taken  from  the  foundling  which 
Sergeant  Sulpice  has  carefully  preserved.  The  Marchioness 
announces  her  intention  of  taking  the  girl  home  with  her 
and  flouts  the  idea  of  Tony  as  a  nephew-in-law.  Marie  is 
in  despair  at  the  thought  of  being  torn  from  her  dear 
regiment  and  her  dearer  sweetheart  and  submits  to  her 
aunt's  arrangements  with  very  bad  grace.  The  regiment 
is  just  as  reluctant  to  lose  its  pretty  vivandiere.  This  time 
alas,  Tony  cannot  follow  her  without  being  a  deserter. 

The  scene  shifts  to  the  chateau  of  the  Marchioness 
where,  surrounded  by  tutors  of  every  description,  poor 
Marie  is  seen  undergoing  the  process  of  education. 
Between  dancing-masters  and  music-masters,  the  girl,  once 
untrammeled  by  conventions,  is  well-nigh  distracted.  On 
one  occasion  her  aunt  bids  her  sing  an  elegant  romanza, 
which  she  begins  in  exaggerated  style  but  before  she  is  half 
through,  to  the  great  disgust  of  her  relative,  she  forgets 
herself  and  swings  into  the  spirited  rataplan.  Her  aunt 
has  suceeded  in  betrothing  her  to  a  nobleman  but  it  is  only 
Tony  who  occupies  her  thoughts.  When  most  deeply 
wrapped  in  despair,  she  hears  the  familiar  sound  of  martial 
music  and  finds  that  the  beloved  Twenty-First  Regiment 
has  arrived,  with  Tony  riding  at  its  head  as  colonel.  He 
again  presses  his  suit  but  finds  the  cruel  Marchioness  proof, 
even  against  epaulettes.  An  elopement  is  agreed  upon  but 
is  detected  by  the  Marchioness,  who  to  gain  her  point 
reveals  the  fact  that  she  is  Marie's  mother  and  not  her  aunt 
and  the  girl  hesitates  to  disobey  the  maternal  will. 


LA  FILLE  DU  REGIMENT.  185 

Finally,  when  Marie,  broken  in  spirit,  is  about  to 
consent  to  sign  the  marriage  contract  with  the  son  of  a 
neighboring  duchess,  her  mother  is  so  touched  by  old 
military  associations  and  her  daughter's  grief,  that  she 
makes  a  sacrifice  of  her  own  pride  and  ambition  and  gives 
her  daughter's  hand  to  the  faithful  Tony. 

The  part  of  Marie  was  the  delight  of  Sontag,  Lind, 
Albani  and  Patti  and  has  been  a  favorite  with  later  cele- 
brated singers.  "The  Daughter  of  the  Regiment"  is  one 
of  the  most  frequently  revived  of  Donizetti's  many  operas. 
Its  Italian  melody  and  French  spirit  make  an  irresistible 
combination  and  its  military  setting  further  adds  to  its 
charms. 

Among  its  stirring  and  piquant  numbers  are  the  over- 
ture ;  the  tyrolienne,  "  Suppliant  to  your  knees ;  "  the  duet 
between  Marie  and  Sulpice,  "  The  Rataplan ; "  the  solo, 
"  Salut  a  la  France ;  "  Marie's  song  of  the  Regiment,  "All 
men  confess  it ;  "  chorus  of  soldiers,  "  We  have  come  our 
child  to  free  "  and  Marie's  duet  with  Tony,  "  No  longer  can 
I  doubt  it." 


LA  FAVORITA 

"  La  Favorita "  is  a  grand  opera  in  four  acts.  Its 
music  is  by  Gaetano  Donizetti  and  its  text  by  Alphonse 
Royer  and  Gustave  Waez.  In  its  present  form  it  was  first 
produced  at  the  Academie,  Paris,  Dec.  2,  1840.  It  is 
adapted  from  a  drama  of  Baculard-Darnaud,  "  Le  Comte  de 
Comminges." 

CHARACTERS. 

Alphonso,  King  of  Castile. 

Fernando,  a  young  novice  of  the  Convent  of  St.  James. 
Don  Caspar,  the  King's  Minister. 
Balthazar,  Superior  of  the  Convent  of  St.  James. 
Leonora,  the  King's  favorite. 
Inez,  her  confidante. 

Courtiers,  guards,  monks,  pilgrims,  attendants,  ladies  of 
the  court,  Spanish  maidens. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Spain,  and  the  opera  opens  as 
Fernando,  a  novice,  is  about  to  take  monastic  vows.  His 
prospective  renunciation  of  the  world  is  suddenly  made 
distasteful  to  him  by  the  sight  of  a  beautiful  woman  at  her 
devotions.  He  falls  so  desperately  in  love  that  he  confesses 
his  plight  to  Balthazar  and,  renouncing  his  vows,  goes  out 
into  the  world.  Balthazar  warns  him  that  he  will  regret 
his  act  and  that  he  will  return  to  the  cloister  to  hide  his 
shame  and  sorrow. 


188  OPERAS 

The  woman  who  thus  has  wrought  havoc  in  his  life 
is  Leonora  de  Gusman,  the  favorite  of  Alphonso  XL,  who 
frequently  visits  her  in  her  retreat  on  the  island  of  St.  Leon, 
and  who  desires  to  cast  aside  his  own  queen  to  marry  her. 
Of  all  this  Fernando  is,  of  course,  wholly  ignorant.  He 
discovers  her  asylum  and  there  makes  haste  to  declare  his 
passion  which,  he  finds,  is  returned.  She  refuses  to  go  with 
him  at  once  but  asks  him  first  to  win  military  honor  for 
her  sake.  With  the  commission  which  she  has  secured  for 
him  from  the  King,  he  goes  forth  to  fight  against  the  Moors. 
From  the  pomp  and  circumstances  by  which  she  is  sur- 
rounded, he  is  led  to  fear  that  Leonora  is  of  royal  blood 
and  far  above  his  aspirations. 

He  is  successful  in  winning  the  glory  Leonora  has 
desired  and  comes  back  from  the  wars  to  claim  her  hand. 
Alphonso,  over  whose  head  has  been  placed  the  threat  of 
the  Papal  anathema  unless  he  give  up  Leonora  forever  and 
renounce  his  plan  of  divorcing  his  queen,  is  ready  to  give 
Leonora  to  Fernando.  She,  feeling  that  her  former  rela- 
tions with  the  king  make  her  unworthy  to  wed  the  man  she 
loves,  sends  a  letter  confessing  everything,  and  begging 
forgiveness.  Alphonso  intercepts  this  letter  to  Fernando 
and  the  marriage  takes  place. 

Fernando  discovers  the  disgrace  which  has  overtaken 
him  only  when  the  courtiers  shun  and  scorn  him  after  the 
wedding.  In  despair  and  consternation  he  renounces  all  his 
honors,  breaks  his  sword  and  returns  to  the  cloister. 
Thither  Leonora  follows  him  and  dies  at  his  feet.  As  Bal- 
thazar bids  the  priests  pray  for  the  dead  woman,  Fernando 
murmurs, 

O  Heaven!  tomorrow  those  same  prayers  will  be  spoken  for  me. 

*'  La  Favorita,"  although  rarely  sung  nowadays  out- 
side of  Italy  and  France,  contains  a  wealth  of  melody  which 
entitles  it  to  a  place  among  the  most  notable  of  the  Donizetti 
scores.  Fernando's  aria,  "  Una  Vergine  "  ("A  Vision  ")  in 
the  first  act,  wherein  he  describes  Leonora's  beauty,  is  of 


LA  FAVORITA  189 

rare  lyric  loveliness,  while  his  "  Sperto  gentil "  ("  Spirit  of 
Light")  in  the  fourth  act  is  one  of  the  most  exquisite 
romanzas  for  tenors  ever  written.  Leonora's  "  O  mio 
Fernando  "  in  Act  III  has  been  heard  the  world  over  from 
contraltos,  both  noted  and  otherwise,  and  is  still  admired. 
The  music  of  the  threat  of  the  Papal  anathema,  sung  by- 
Balthazar  in  the  second  act,  and  of  the  great  finale  which 
follows  it  are  among  the  most  truly  dramatic  pages 
Donizetti  has  left  us. 


LINDA  DI  GHAMOUNI 

"Linda  di  Chamouni,"  a  grand  opera  in  three  acts 
with  text  by  Rossi  and  music  by  Gaetano  Donizetti,  was 
first  produced  at  the  Karnthnerthor  Theatre,  Vienna,  May 

19,  1842. 

CHARACTERS. 

The  Marquis  de  Boisfleury. 

Charles,  Viscount  de  Sirval. 

The  Prefect. 

Antonio  Loustot,  a  farmer,  father  of  Linda. 

Pierotto,  a  Savoyard. 

Steward  of  the  estate. 

Linda. 

Maddalena,  Linda's  mother. 

Male  and  female  Savoyards  and  children. 

Scene,  Chamouni  and  Paris,  about  1760. 

Antonio  Loustot  and  his  wife,  Maddalena,  are  poor  but 
honest  farmer-folk  who  reside  in  the  valley  of  Chamouni. 
They  possess  an  only  daughter  Linda  who  is  remarkably 
beautiful.  A  young  painter  named  Charles,  of  whom  they 
know  very  little,  has  wooed  her  successfully.  At  the  open- 
ing of  the  opera,  we  learn  that  the  family,  on  account  of 
decaying  fortunes,  will  find  it  necessary  to  surrender  the 
farm  which  they  have  occupied  for  many  years  under  the 
ownership  of  the  Marchioness  de  Sirval, 


192  OPERAS 

Their  fears  are  quieted  by  the  Marquis  of  Boisfleury, 
the  brother  of  the  Marchioness,  who  makes  lavish  proffers 
of  friendship  and  promises  to  intercede  with  his  sister,  their 
landlady.  Boisfleury,  however,  is  an  old  rogue  and  has  an 
ulterior  motive,  viz.,  to  gain  dishonorably  the  handsome 
daughter  Linda.  The  prefect  of  the  village  sees  into  his 
designs  and  to  remove  the  girl  from  the  danger  which 
threatens  her,  he  advises  her  parents  to  allow  her  to  accom- 
pany a  party  of  peasants  who  are  going  to  Paris  for  the 
winter  season,  in  accordance  with  their  yearly  custom.  The 
prefect  promises  that  she  shall  lodge  at  the  house  of  his 
brother.  Her  parents  consent  and  Linda  sets  out  under 
the  protection  of  Pierotto,  a  worthy  villager. 

On  the  way,  by  some  mischance,  Linda  is  separated 
from  her  protector  and  to  her  dismay,  she  learns,  when  she 
finally  arrives  in  Paris  that  the  prefect's  brother  is  deceased. 
Her  lover  Charles  has  followed  her.  He  now  discloses  the 
fact  that  he  is  the  Viscount  Sirval,  son  of  the  Marchioness, 
and  nephew  of  the  Marquis  de  Boisfleury. 

He  renews  his  promises  of  marriage  and  Linda,  who 
is  quite  helpless,  allows  him  to  establish  her  in  handsome 
apartments.  While  in  this  questionable  situation,  the 
Marquis  spies  her  out  and  renews  his  insults  but  is  effectu- 
ally repulsed.  Pierotto  also  finds  her  and,  at  last,  her 
father.  Despite  the  promises  of  the  Marquis,  he  has  been 
forced  to  abandon  his  farm  and,  wandering  to  Paris,  he 
comes  to  ask  her  bounty.  When  he  finds  that  it  is  his 
daughter  who  is  living  in  such  state,  he  doubts  her  purity 
and  leaves  her  with  malediction.  The  Marchioness,  mean- 
time, has  discovered  her  son's  infatuation,  and  in  her  anger 
vows  to  visit  her  displeasure  severely  upon  the  girl,  unless 
her  son  marries  the  eligible  person  she  has  selected.  Charles 
feigns  consent  to  this  in  order  to  save  Linda  who  believes 
herself  deserted  and  goes  mad.  In  this  sad  condition,  she 
is  taken  back  to  her  native  valley,  where  it  transpires  that 
the  Marchioness  has  relented,  and  has  consented  to  the 
union  of  her  son  and  the  lovely  peasant  girl.    At  the  sound 


LINDA  DI  CHAMOUNI  193 

of  the  voice  of  her  lover,  Linda's  reason  returns  and  the 
opera  ends  joyously. 

Among  the  numbers  of  this  once  popular  work  are 
Antonio's  song,  "Here  in  our  own  native  valley;"  "  Light 
of  my  Soul,  I  turn  to  thee,"  sung  by  Linda;  Pierotto's 
ballad,  "  For  her  mother,  a  daughter  wandered ; "  the  duet 
of  Linda  and  Charles,  "  Haste  to  console  me,  happy  day ;  " 
solo  of  the  Marquis,  "  It  were  unpleasant ;  "  Charles'  song, 
"  If  thus  the  world ; "  the  Marquis'  song,  "  She's  as  pure  as 
a  lily ; "  Charles'  appeal,  which  dissipates  Linda's  madness, 
"  'Tis  the  voice  which  first  sweetly  "  and  the  final  duet  of 
Linda  and  Charles,  "Ah  now  the  painful  dream  hath  ended." 


RIENZI 

"  Rienzi,  The  Last  of  the  Tribunes  "  is  a  tragic  opera 
in  five  acts,  with  score  and  libretto  by  Richard  Wagner. 
The  story  is  based  upon  Bulwer's  novel  "  The  Last  of  the 
Tribunes."  It  is  the  first  of  the  Wagnerian  operas  to  be 
included  permanently  in  repertory  and  was  produced  at  the 
Royal  Opera  House,  Dresden,  Oct.  20,  1842. 

CHARACTERS. 

Cola  Rienzi,  the  last  of  the  Roman  Tribunes. 

Irene,   his   sister. 

Steffano  Colonna,  head  of  the  House  of  Colonna. 

Adriano,  his  son. 

Paolo  Orsini,  head  of  the  House  of  Orsini. 

Raimondo,  Papal  Legate. 

Baroncelli,  f    _. 

r'  A  y  \T      u-      \    Roman  citizens. 

Cecco  del  Vecchio,    ^ 

A  Messenger  of  Peace. 

Foreign  ambassadors,  Roman  nobles,  citizens,  mes- 
sengers, priests  and  monks  of  various  orders, 
Roman  trabants. 

The  action  takes  place  in  Rome  of  the  Fourteenth 
Century,  at  a  time  when  the  peace  of  the  city  is  disturbed 
by  the  dissension  existing  among  many  of  its  prominent 
families.  The  houses  of  Colonna  and  Orsini  are  actively 
engaged  in  this  civil  warfare.  The  opera  opens  at  night  in 
a  street  near  the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran.     Orsini,  a 


196  OPERAS 

patrician,  accompanied  by  his  friends,  is  discovered  attempt- 
ing to  abduct  Irene,  the  sister  of  Rienzi,  who  is  the  Papal 
Notary,  a  dreamer  and  a  patriot.  As  the  aristocratic  ruffians 
are  about  to  rush  away  with  their  beautiful  prey,  Adrian© 
of  the  rival  house  of  Colonna  comes  upon  the  scene  with 
his  associates  and,  observing  the  disturbance,  joyfully  seizes 
the  opportunity  to  join  in  the  fight.  His  desire  for  the 
combat  is  intensified  when  he  discovers  the  identity  of  Irene, 
with  whom  he  is  in  love.  He  succeeds  in  tearing  her  from 
the  Orsinis. 

The  noise  of  the  conflict  brings  many  to  the  street  and 
among  these  is  Rienzi,  who,  when  he  learns  of  the  insult 
to  his  sister,  chides  the  combatants  indignantly  for  the 
degradation  to  which  they  have  brought  the  noble  old  city 
and  vows  vengeance.  Adriano,  though  patrician,  is  influ- 
enced by  his  love  for  Irene  and  resolves  to  throw  his  for- 
tunes with  her  brother.  The  nobles  wishing  to  settle  the 
question  of  supremacy  once  and  for  all,  arrange  for  a 
general  encounter  on  the  morrow,  to  take  place  just  outside 
the  city,  but  Rienzi  overhears  their  plans  and  has  the  gates 
closed  upon  them,  allowing  none  to  re-enter  until  they  have 
taken  an  oath  to  keep  the  peace.  He  is  hailed  by  the  people 
as  Liberator  and  Tribune. 

In  the  second  act,  Rienzi's  plans  having  succeeded,  the 
patricians  appear  at  the  capitol  and  sue  for  pardon  from 
the  new  Tribune.  Adriano  knowing  that  their  humility  is 
a  ruse,  and  that  a  conspiracy  to  kill  Rienzi  is  on  foot,  tries 
to  warn  him.  Festivities  are  arranged  to  celebrate  the 
reconciliation  and  during  their  progress  young  Orsini  rushes 
upon  Rienzi  with  his  sword  but  the  Tribune  is  saved  by  a 
steel  breastplate  which  he  wears  beneath  his  toga.  The 
ofifending  nobles  are  sentenced  to  death,  the  people  clamor- 
ing loudly  for  their  execution,  a  verbose  blacksmith,  Cecco. 
being  the  chief  spokesman.  Adriano,  whose  father  is 
among  the  condemned,  sues  for  clemency  and  Irene  adds 
her  pleas  to  his.  Moved  by  them,  Rienzi,  who  resents  the 
personal  attack  less  than  the  blow  aimed  at  Roman  liber- 


RIENZI  197 

ties  again  offers  pardon  in  exchange  for  submission. 
Again  they  take  the  oaths  but  with  no  thought  of  keeping 
them. 

In  the  third  act,  the  patricians  have  thrown  off  all 
pretense  and  are  drawn  up  in  battle  array  before  the  gates 
of  Rome,  which  they  are  preparing  to  enter  with  fire  and 
sword.  The  people  call  upon  Rienzi  to  save  them  and  he, 
marshaling  his  forces,  rides  to  the  gates,  escorted  by  the 
Roman  troops.  Adriano  of  the  divided  heart  throws  him- 
self in  front  of  the  Tribune's  horse  and  pleads  for  mercy, 
this  time  to  no  avail.  In  the  battle,  the  tide  of  fortune  goes 
with  the  plebeians  and  among  the  slain  is  Adriano's  father, 
over  whose  body  the  young  man  vows  vengeance. 

In  the  fourth  act,  which  again  is  laid  in  front  of  the 
Lateran  Church,  the  tide  of  public  favor  is  found  sud- 
denly to  have  ebbed  away  from  Rienzi.  The  nobles  have 
won  to  their  side  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor  and  with 
both  church  and  state  hostile,  the  fickle  Roman  public 
becomes  dissatisfied  with  its  leader.  Cecco  and  his  kindred 
spirit,  Baroncelli,  raise  the  cry  that  Rienzi  has  been  treach- 
erous. The  people  accept  his  view,  especially  when  they 
learn  of  Adriano's  apostasy.  The  cry  now  is  "  Down  with 
Rienzi."  He  addresses  them  in  words  of  such  high  nobility 
that  he  almost  has  won  them  back  when  the  church  doors 
open  and  the  Papal  Legate  appears  to  read  the  bill  excom- 
municating him.  The  people  are  horror-stricken  and  flee. 
Only  Irene  clings  to  Rienzi  in  his  humiliation,  resisting 
Adriano's  entreaties  to  come  with  him. 

In  the  last  act,  Irene,  in  search  of  her  brother,  finds 
him  in  the  capitol  at  prayer.  He  tells  her  that  their  cause 
is  lost  and  bids  her  seek  Adriano  for  protection.  But  even 
with  hope  dead,  he  still  speaks  in  terms  of  golden  eloquence 
of  his  love  for  Rome.  Irene  refuses  to  go  and  declares  that 
she  will  die  with  him.  She  succeeds  in  lending  him  fresh 
courage  and  he  goes  forth  once  more  to  try  to  win  the  ear 
of  the  people.  But  the  mob  even  now  has  surrounded  the 
capitol  with  firebrands.     Never  faltering,  he  seeks  a  balcony 


198  OPERAS 

to  speak  a  last  word  of  patriotic  admonition,  but  his  voice 
is  drowned  in  the  din.  Adriano  sees  Irene  in  the  glare  and 
comes  to  perish  with  them  and  the  capitol  falls  in  ruins 
over  the  last  of  the  Tribunes  and  his  friends. 

In  "  Rienzi,"  Richard  Wagner,  reformer  though  he  was 
destined  to  be,  did  not  succeed  in  getting  in  anywise  far 
away  from  the  conventions  of  Italian  opera  as  they  existed 
at  the  time  the  work  was  created.  He  wrote  with  more 
brilliancy  and  showiness  than  even  Meyerbeer  had  succeeded 
in  achieving,  but  he  used  the  same  forms,  viz.,  the  aria, 
the  concerted  numbers,  the  elaborate  finales  and  the  set 
recitative,  while  the  orchestra  furnished  accompaniment 
rather  than  serving  as  tonal  illustrator  of  the  action  on  the 
stage.  The  work  found  favor,  however,  and  won  for  its 
composer  the  position  of  orchestral  director  at  the  Royal 
Opera  in  Dresden.  Later  on,  Wagner  himself  regarded 
"  Rienzi  "  with  little  liking  and  the  opera  now  has  interest 
chiefly  as  marking  the  starting  point  of  its  author's  reform- 
atory progress  into  the  field  of  lyric  drama. 

Among  the  striking  passages  are  the  aria  of  the  hero, 
"Wohlan,  so  mag  es  sein  "  ("*Tis  well,  so  may  it  be"); 
the  terzet  for  Rienzi,  Irene  and  Adriano,  "  O  Schwester, 
sprich"  ("  O  sister,  speak  ")  ;  the  passionate  duet  of  Adriano 
and  Irene,  "  Er  geht  un  lasst  dich  meinen  Schutz  "  ("He 
goes  and  leaves  thee  in  my  care  ")  ;  the  spirited  chorus  of 
people  in  the  finale  of  the  first  act;  the  song  of  the  mes- 
senger of  peace;  the  elaborate  ballet  music;  the  battle  hymn, 
"Auf,  Romer,  auf,  fur  Heerd  und  fur  Altare "  ("Up 
Romans,  strike  for  hearth  and  for  your  homes  ")  ;  Adriano's 
great  scena,  "  Gerechter  Gott "  ("Thou  God  of  right")  a 
number  which  still  has  frequent  performance  in  the  concert- 
room;  Rienzi's  prayer  in  the  capitol,  "Allmacht  ger  Vater, 
blick  herab  "  and  the  duet  of  Adriano  and  Irene,  "  Lebroohl, 
Irene  "  ("  Farewell,  Irene  "). 


DER  FLIEGENDE  HOLLANDER 

"  Der  Fliegende  Hollander "  or  "  The  Flying  Dutch- 
man," a  romantic  opera  in  three  acts  with  words  and  score  by 
Richard  Wagner,  was  first  produced  at  the  Royal  Opera 
in  Dresden,  Jan.  2,  1843,  with  a  Paris  production  the 
following  year  under  the  title  of  "  The  Phantom  Ship." 
Had  a  hurricane  not  overtaken  the  vessel  upon  which 
Wagner  made  the  voyage  from  Riga  to  Paris  by  way  of 
London,  "  The  Flying  Dutchman "  would  probably  never 
have  been  written.  The  fury  of  the  storm  suggested  to  the 
composer  Heinrich  Heine's  poetical  version  of  the  legend, 
which  he,  with  the  consent  of  the  Hebrew  poet,  afterward 
used. 

CHARACTERS. 

Daland,  a  Norwegian  captain. 
Senta,  his  daughter. 
Erick,  a  hunter. 
Mary,  Senta's  nurse. 
Daland's  steersman. 
The  Dutchman. 

Crew   of    the    Norwegian   vessel,    crew    of    the    flying 
Dutchman's  vessel,  chorus  of  Norwegian  maidens. 

The  hero  of  the  opera  is  the  Dutch  captain,  the 
Wandering  Jew  of  the  ocean,  who,  dowered  with  the  spirit 
of  persistence,  swore  when  trying  to  double  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  in  a  gale  that  he  would  accomplish  his  purpose 


200  OPERAS 

even  though  he  might  have  to  plow  the  seas  forever.  His 
rash  words  were  overheard  by  Satan,  who  condemned  him 
to  sail  until  Judgment  Day  unless  he  could  escape  the 
decree  by  finding  a  woman  who  would  love  him  faithfully 
until  death.  Once  in  every  seven  years  he  might  go  on 
shore  to  seek  the  woman  of  his  salvation. 

As  the  opera  opens,  the  Dutchman's  ship  is  seen  with 
black  masts  and  blood-red  sails  set,  making  its  way  into  a 
Norwegian  bay,  for  it  is  the  expiration  of  a  seven  years' 
term.  Daland,  whose  home  is  near,  has  preceded  him. 
The  two  captains  are  favorably  impressed  with  each  other 
and  the  Dutchman  makes  bold  to  ask  to  be  allowed  to  linger 
a  few  moments  by  the  fireside  of  a  home,  promising  wonder- 
ful gifts  in  return  for  this  privilege.  When  he  hears  of 
the  existence  of  the  daughter  Senta,  he,  hoping  against 
hope  that  she  may  prove  to  be  the  faithful  one,  begs  per- 
mission to  woo  her  and  Daland  freely  grants  it. 

The  scene  is  changed  to  Daland's  home,  where  the 
room  is  filled  with  the  whirr  of  spinning-wheels.  A  number 
of  neighborhood  girls  are  at  work  at  the  direction  of  Mary, 
Senta's  old  nurse.  Only  Senta  is  idle  and  sits  with  her 
hands  in  her  lap,  dreamily  gazing  at  the  portrait  of  the 
Flying  Dutchman  which  hangs  upon  the  wall  and  whose 
sad  story  she  has  heard.  The  girls  twit  her  on  having 
fallen  in  love  with  a  picture  when  a  flesh  and  blood  lover 
like  Erick  is  at  hand.  She  admits  that  she  would  be  glad 
to  give  her  love  to  save  the  man  whose  mournful  fate  has 
touched  her  heart  and  prays  that  he  may  appear  to  put  her 
words  to  the  test.  Erick  comes  to  tell  her  that  her  father 
has  landed  and  is  on  his  way  home  and  lingers  to  relate  a 
disagreeable  dream  he  has  had  in  which  she  has  fallen  in 
love  with  the  original  of  the  picture  on  the  wall  and,  follow- 
ing him  to  sea,  has  been  lost.  Senta  confesses  to  her  jeal- 
ous lover  that  she  believes  the  dream  to  be  a  warning  of 
her  fate. 

The  door  opens  and  Daland  and  his  guest  enter  and 
Senta  is  transfixed  to  see  the  man  of  the  portrait  standing 


DER    FLIEGENDE    HOLLANDER  201 

before  her  in  life.  She  can  find  no  words  of  greeting,  and 
her  father  bids  her  show  a  warmer  hospitahty.  He  speaks 
of  the  wealth  of  the  guest  and  asks  her  to  listen  to  his 
wooing.  It  is  not  the  thought  of  the  treasure  which  draws 
the  heart  of  the  gentle  Senta  to  the  handsome  stranger  but 
the  thought  of  the  benefit  she  may  bring  to  him.  He,  in 
turn,  speedily  comes  to  feel  for  the  unselfish  girl  so  genuine 
a  love  that,  remembering  that  if  she  fail  in  her  faithfulness 
she  must  be  accursed  with  him,  he  now  is  led  to  dissuade 
her  from  attempting  to  save  him.  But  Senta  remains  firm 
in  her  purpose  though  he  paints  her  life  with  him  in  gloomy 
colors.  Since  she  falters  not,  the  happy  wanderer  exclaims, 
in  an  ecstasy  of  joy, 

She  gives  her  hand.     I  conquer  you, 
Dread  powers  of  Hell,  while  she  is  truel 

and  the  scene  ends  with  the  plighting  of  their  troth. 

The  last  act  is  on  the  seashore  where  the  ships  of 
Daland  and  the  Flying  Dutchman  ride  at  anchor.  On 
Daland's  gaily  lighted  craft  all  is  life  and  animation,  but 
from  the  sombre  ship  of  the  wanderer  no  sound  issues. 
Unawed  by  the  deathlike  silence,  a  party  of  maidens,  who 
have  come  to  bid  farewell  to  Daland's  departing  crew,  chal- 
lenge the  unseen  sailors  on  the  other  ship  to  dance  with 
them  upon  the  strand,  but  to  no  avail. 

At  last  the  rising  storm  begins  to  whistle  through  the 
rigging.  Blue  lights  hover  about  the  masts  of  the  Dutch- 
man's ship  and  the  sailors  come  on  board  to  prepare  for  the 
departure,  singing  drearily  of  the  captain  and  the  maiden 
he  must  find.  The  activity  is  but  momentary,  however,  and 
as  the  gloom  resettles  upon  it,  Senta  comes,  intent  on  fol- 
lowing the  Dutchman.  She  is  followed  by  Erick,  who 
implores  her  to  listen  to  him,  and  to  forget  the  stranger  in 
favor  of  whom  her  father  has  unduly  influenced  her.  As 
she  listens,  sorry  lor  Erick  but  not  shaken  in  her  resolve, 
the  Dutchman  beholds  them  and  misinterprets  the  girl's 
dejection  into  regret  of  her  promise  to  him.  Mad  with 
grief  and  disappointment,  he  bids  her  farewell  and  hastens 


202  OPERAS 

to  his  ship.  Senta  pursues  him,  protesting  her  faithfulness. 
At  first,  he  refuses  to  Hsten,  but  at  last  turns  and  announces 
himself  as  the  accursed  Flying  Dutchman  and  warns  her 
that  she  will  do  well  to  renounce  him.  Escaping  from  her 
clinging  arms,  he  goes  on  board.  Senta  runs  to  a  cliff  and 
cries  to  him  through  the  wind  and  waves  that,  though  it  be 
her  last  breath,  she  swears  with  it  her  unwavering  faithful- 
ness. But  her  voice  is  drowned  in  the  tumult  of  the 
tempest,  and  as  the  ship  fades  from  view  she  casts  herself 
into  the  sea.  At  once  the  distant  spectral  vessel  sinks,  the 
storm  ceases,  and  in  the  rosy  glow  of  the  setting  sun  are 
seen  the  transfigured  forms  of  Senta  and  the  Flying 
Dutchman  floating  toward  heaven  in  each  other's  arms. 

The  overture,  supplied  by  Wagner  many  years  later 
with  a  more  brilliant  ending  and  somewhat  richer  scoring 
than  it  originally  possessed,  is  an  established  favorite  in  the 
concert-room  and  is  one  of  the  finest  portions  of  the  opera. 
The  stormy  introductory  music  is  followed  by  a  bright 
chorus  for  the  sailors  and  the  tenor  solo  "  Mit  Gewitter  und 
Sturm"  ("'Mid  the  Tempest  and  Storm").  The  Dutch- 
man's entrance  number,  "  Die  Frist  ist  um  "  ("  The  Term  is 
Past ")  leads  to  a  duet  for  the  Dutchman  and  Daland. 

The  second  act  opens  with  the  familiar  "  Spinning 
Chorus  "  for  the  women  and  is  followed  by  Senta's  ballad 
telling  of  the  Dutchman  and  his  fate.  The  orchestral  music 
accompanying  the  meeting  of  the  Dutchman  and  Senta  and 
descriptive  of  their  emotions,  is  the  first  example  we  have 
of  Wagner's  use  of  those  instrumental  means  of  dramatic 
and  emotional  expression,  which,  in  his  subsequent  work, 
he  employed  so  constantly  and  developed  so  elaborately. 
The  duet  for  the  Dutchman  and  Senta  forms  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  portions  of  the  entire  opera,  and  in  the 
closing  act  the  chorus  for  the  sailors  and  the  women  and 
the  duet  between  Erick  and  Senta  are  worthy  of  note. 


DON  PASQUALE 

"  Don  Pasquale  "  is  an  opera  buffa  in  three  acts  with 
text  and  music  by  Gaetano  Donizetti.  It  was  first  pre- 
sented at  the  Theatre  des  Italiens,  Paris,  on  Jan.  4,  1843. 

CHARACTERS. 

Don  Pasquale,  an  antiquated  bachelor. 

Doctor  Malatesta,  the  physician  and  friend  of  Don 
Pasquale. 

Ernesto,  nephew  of  Don  Pasquale. 

Norina,  beloved  by  Ernesto. 

A  Notary. 

Chorus  of  valets  and  chambermaids,  majordomo,  dress- 
maker and  hair-dresser. 

The  scene  of  this  gay  and  witty  work  is  laid  in  Rome 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  and  enjoys  the 
distinction  of  being  of  the  best  of  Donizetti's  hghter  operas. 
The  cast  is  small  and  the  work  too  brief  to  require  an 
entire  evening  for  its  performance,  thus  making  necessary 
the  employment  of  a  ballet  or  of  another  short  opera. 

Don  Pasquale  is  a  rich  old  bachelor  with  a  nephew 
Ernesto,  who  wishes  to  marry  but  does  not  fancy  the 
desirable  party  picked  out  for  him.  Ernesto  has  fallen  in 
love  with  the  charming  Norina  and  has  no  thoughts  for 
other  women.  The  uncle  resolves  upon  a  most  piquant 
punishment.      He    will    marry    himself    and    disinherit    the 


204  OPERAS 

recalcitrant  young  man.  He  confides  the  idea  to  Dr.  Mala- 
testa,  who  is  also  Ernesto's  friend  and  the  physician 
suggests  a  lady  whom  he  represents  as  being  his  sister 
Sophronia,  fresh  from  the  convent  and  utterly  ignorant 
of  the  "  pomps  and  vanity  of  this  wicked  world."  In 
reality,  he  has  in  mind  Norina  and  a  sham  marriage 
contract.  The  lady  consents  to  the  plot  and  has  much 
sport  in  rehearsing  before  the  Doctor  the  bashful  demeanor 
he  has  recommended.  She  has  rather  ingenuously  admitted 
that  she  is  mistress  of  all  the  arts  of  coquetry  and  when 
she  is  presented,  her  beauty  and  timid  modesty  easily  win 
the  old  man's  affections.  The  marriage  contract  is  speedily 
signed  and  Don  Pasquale  is  so  pleased  that  he  puts  most 
of  his  fortune  in  the  name  of  his  bride.  With  this  consum- 
mation, an  amazing  change  comes  over  Norina.  Her 
modesty  is  changed  to  worldliness;  she  makes  magnificent 
arrangements  for  a  new  wardrobe,  instructions  are  given  to 
the  servants  for  housekeeping  on  an  extravagant  scale  and, 
with  a  grand  air,  she  gives  orders  for  a  splendid  dinner  for 
at  least  fifty  guests.  The  bridegroom  is  horrified  to  find 
half  a  year's  income  gone  merely  for  hats  and  ribbons,  and 
added  to  the  lady's  prodigality  are  all  the  attributes  of  a 
termagant. 

On  the  very  eve  of  the  wedding,  she  insists  on 
attending  the  theatre  and  she  boxes  her  fiance's  ears  when 
he  ventures  to  disapprove.  To  make  matters  thoroughly 
unpleasant  for  the  unhappy  Don  Pasquale,  Norina  drops 
a  love-letter  conveniently  near  for  detection.  From  its 
contents,  he  concludes  that  she  is  unfaithful  into  the 
bargain  and  so  orders  her  out  of  his  sight. 

Malatesta  relents  on  viewing  his  abject  distress.  He 
reveals  the  true  situation  and  advises  Don  Pasquale  to  let 
Norina  go  as  he  is  not  really  married  to  her.  Don 
Pasquale's  delight  at  his  escape  is  so  great  that  he  finds  it 
easy  to  forgive  Malatesta  for  his  deception  and  his  consent 
to  the  union  of  Norina  and  Ernesto  is  crowned  with  his 
blessing. 


DON  PASQUALE  205 

The  opera  abounds  with  melodious  numbers  but  the 
world-wide  favorite  is  the  serenade.  "  Com'  e'  gentil,"  sung 
in  the  last  act  by  Ernesto. 


THE  BOHEMIAN  GIRL 

"  The  Bohemian  Girl,"  an  opera  in  three  acts,  is  the 
composition  of  Michael  William  Balfe,  with  words  by 
Bunn  founded  on  the  ballet  "  The  Gypsy."  It  was  pro- 
duced at  Drury  Lane,  London,  Nov.  27,  1843. 

CHARACTERS. 

Count  Arnheim,  Governor  of  Presburg. 

Thaddeus,  a  proscribed  Pole. 

Florestein,  nephew  of  the  Count. 

Devilshoof,  Chief  of  the  Gypsy  tribe. 

Arline,  the  Count's  daughter. 

Buda,  her  attendant. 

Queen  of  the  Gypsies. 

Nobles,  soldiers,  gypsies,  retainers,  peasants. 

The  setting  of  the  opera  is  Austrian.  The  first  act 
opens  upon  the  homestead  of  the  Count  Arnheim.  The 
chase  is  about  to  begin  and  the  Count,  with  his  small 
daughter  Arline  and  nephew  Florestein,  joins  his  retainers 
before  the  chateau.  As  they  depart  for  the  sport,  Thaddeus 
rushes  in,  closely  pursued  by  the  Austrian  soldiery.  Devils- 
hoof  and  his  gypsy  band,  arriving  at  this  instant,  overhear 
his  expression  of  grief  over  exile  and  prevail  upon  him  to 
join  their  nomadic  band.  He  straightway  brings  favor 
upon  himself  and  his  new  friends  by  rescuing  Arline  from 
a  stag.     The  Count  makes  him  an  honored  g^est  at  the 


208  OPERAS 

feast  but  at  his  refusal  to  drink  the  health  of  the  Emperor, 
the  soldiers  fall  upon  him.  Devilshoof  interferes  and  is 
imprisoned  in  the  castle,  as  a  consequence.  Thaddeus, 
finding  his  welcome  vanished,  departs,  but  the  unlucky 
banquet  is  again  interrupted  by  the  discovery  that  the  gypsy 
has  escaped  and  for  revenge  has  taken  with  him  the 
daughter  of  the  host. 

An  interval  of  twelve  years  elapses  between  the  first 
and  second  acts.  Count  Arnheim  never  has  found  a  trace 
of  Arline  and  mourns  her  as  dead.  The  action  opens  in 
the  gypsy  camp  which  has  been  pitched  near  Presburg.  It 
is  evening  and  Arline,  asleep  in  the  tent  of  the  gypsy 
Queen,  is  watched  over  by  Thaddeus.  The  gypsies  are 
bent  upon  their  usual  nocturnal  raid.  Florestein,  who  is 
returning  intoxicated  from  a  revel,  proves  the  victim  and  is 
relieved  of  his  valuables,  among  them  a  diamond-set 
medallion  which  Devilshoof  carries  off.  The  Queen  of  the 
gypsies  appears  and  demands  the  restitution  of  everything 
but  the  medallion  is  for  the  time  being  beyond  recovery. 
Meanwhile,  in  the  tent,  Arline  has  awakened  and  Thaddeus 
declares  his  love  for  her  and  finds  it  is  returned.  He 
points  to  the  scar  upon  her  arm  and  tells  her  the  story  of 
her  rescue  from  the  stag  but  does  not  disclose  the  secret 
of  her  birth.  The  Queen,  who  is  in  love  with  Thaddeus,  at 
first  displays  her  jealousy  but  afterwards  concludes  to 
appear  to  favor  the  affair,  in  order  to  secure  her  vengeance. 
The  scene  shifts  to  the  city  streets,  where  a  fair  is  in 
progress.  The  gypsies  are  flocking  thither.  Florestein, 
attracted  by  Arline's  beauty,  insults  her  and  is  rebuked  in 
no  uncertain  fashion.  The  Queen,  as  if  in  approval,  hangs 
the  medallion  about  the  girl's  neck  and  the  angry  Flo- 
restein, seeing  it  there  a  moment  later,  has  her  arrested  for 
theft.  The  final  scene  of  the  act  is  devoted  to  the  trial  of 
Arline,  which  Count  Arnheim  conducts.  In  its  progress, 
he  notices  the  scar  upon  the  girl's  arm.  He  asks  its  cause 
and  she  recounts  the  story  which  Thaddeus  has  told  her, 
thus  establishing  her  identity. 


THE  BOHEMIAN  GIRL  209 

The  last  act  played  in  the  salon  of  Count  Arnheim 
finds  Arline  in  her  old  position  as  daughter  of  the  house 
and  pursued  by  the  dissolute  Florestein,  whose  unwelcome 
attentions  only  endear  to  her  the  memory  of  Thaddeus. 
Through  the  offices  of  the  ever-faithful  Devilshoof,  the 
lovers  meet  and  renew  their  vows.  Thaddeus  conceals 
himself  as  visitors  enter  to  be  presented  to  the  reinstated 
young  Countess  but  the  gypsy  Queen  has  followed  him  to 
the  castle  and  discovers  him  to  the  assemblage.  He  is 
ordered  to  leave  but  Arline  announces  her  resolve  to  go 
with  him.  Her  father  relents  on  learning  of  the  young 
Pole's  distinguished  birth  and  consents  to  their  union. 
The  Queen  of  the  gypsies  resolves  upon  a  desperate  move 
and  orders  one  of  her  people  to  shoot  Thaddeus,  but 
Devilshoof,  by  a  swift  movement,  changes  the  course  of 
the  bullet  to  her  own  heart. 

This  famous  ballad  opera,  which  scored  an  instant 
success,  has  a  permanent  hold  on  public  affection,  for  its 
story  is  prettily  romantic  and  is  attractively  told,  while  its 
music  is  so  tuneful  that  it  has  endeared  itself  to  melody 
lovers  the  world  over.  It  is  by  far  the  best  known  of 
Balfe's  works. 

Among  the  songs  which  countless  thousands  still  delight 
in  hearing  and  singing  are  Count  Arnheim's  solo,  "A 
Soldier's  Life ; "  "  'Tis  sad  to  leave  your  fatherland,"  a 
pathetic  number  sung  by  Thaddeus;  the  recurring  gypsy 
chorus,  "  In  the  gypsy's  life  you  read ;  "  the  fervent  prayer, 
"  Thou  who  in  might  supreme ;  "  Arline's  song,  "  I  dreamed 
that  I  dwelt  in  marble  halls ;  "  the  duet  for  Thaddeus  and 
Arline,  "  The  secret  of  her  birth ; "  Arline's  song  at  the 
fair  to  the  accompaniment  of  castanets,  "  Come  with  the 
gypsy  bride ; "  "  From  the  valleys  and  hills, "  sung  by 
Arline,  the  Queen,  Thaddeus  and  Devilshoof;  the  Count's 
song,  "  The  Heart  bowed  down ;  "  the  ensemble,  "  Praised 
be  the  will  of  heaven ; "  Thaddeus'  song,  "  Then  You'll 
remember  Me "  and,  in  the  finale,  his  number,  "  When 
the  fair  land  of  Poland." 


ERNANI 

'*  Ernani,"  a  grand  opera  in  four  acts  with  music  by 
Giuseppe  Verdi  and  words  by  Piave,  taken  from  Victor 
Hugo's  "  Hernani,"  was  first  produced  at  the  Teatro 
Fenice,  Venice,  March  9,  1844.  "  Ernani "  encountered 
various  difficulties.  The  police  interfered  before  the  first 
performance,  absolutely  prohibiting  a  conspiracy  on  the 
stage;  the  feelings  of  one  Count  Mocenigo,  an  influential 
person,  were  wrought  upon  by  the  "  disgraceful  "  blowing 
of  the  horn  in  the  last  act;  and  Hugo  objected  to  the  use 
of  his  drama.  Everyone  eventually  was  mollified,  however, 
and  "  Ernani's "  success  was  so  pronounced  that  it  was 
produced  on  fifteen  different  stages  in  nine  months. 

CHARACTERS. 

Don  Carlos,  King  of  Spain. 

Don  Ruy  Gomez  de  Silva,  a  grandee  of  Spain. 

Ernani,  a  bandit  chief. 

Don  Ricardo,  an  esquire  of  the  King. 

Jago,  an  esquire  of  Don  Silva. 

Elvira,  betrothed  to  Don  Silva. 

Giovanna,  in  attendance  upon  her. 

Chorus  of  mountaineers  and  bandits,  followers  of  Don 
Silva,  ladies  of  Elvira,  followers  of  the  King,  Spanish 
and  German  nobles  and  ladies,  electors  and  pages. 
The    scene  is    laid    in    Aragon    and    the    time    of    the 
story   is    1519.     Elvira   is   a    Spanish   lady   of   rank,    with 


212  OPERAS 

whom  three  men  of  importance  are  in  love.  One  of  these 
is  her  fiance,  the  aged  grandee,  Don  Gomez  de  Silva;  the 
second  is  none  other  than  the  King  of  Spain;  while  the 
third,  whose  love  she  returns,  is  Ernani  the  bandit,  in  reality 
the  scion  of  a  noble  house.  As  her  wedding  approaches, 
Ernani  plans  to  carry  her  off.  Don  Carlos  also  forces  his 
way  into  her  apartment  and,  having  told  her  of  his  passion, 
tries  to  abduct  her.  Her  cries  summon  Ernani  who  rescues 
her  and  defies  the  King.  Silva  also  vows  to  avenge  the 
insult  but  when  he  learns  that  his  enemy  is  the  King,  he 
meekly  sues  for  pardon.  The  wedding-day  of  Elvira  and 
Silva  arrives  and  Ernani  entering,  disguised  as  a  pilgrim, 
believes  that  the  lady  has  been  false  to  him.  He  throws  off 
his  mask  and  demands  that  he  be  given  up  to  the  King  but 
Silva  refuses  to  betray  a  guest.  However,  when  Silva 
discovers  that  his  bride  is  attached  to  Ernani,  he  vows 
vengeance  upon  him.  In  the  meantime,  Don  Carlos  takes 
Elvira  away  as  hostage  and  Silva  challenges  the  bandit  to 
a  duel.  The  latter  refuses  to  fight  with  him  but  discloses 
the  King's  perfidy  and  offers  to  aid  him  in  the  pursuit  of 
vengeance.  He  goes  so  far  as  to  pledge  his  life  to  Silva, 
promising  to  give  it  up  whenever  Silva  shall  blow  the  signal 
upon  his  horn. 

The  two  join  with  other  nobles  in  a  conspiracy  against 
the  King,  the  meeting  being  held  in  the  catacombs  in 
Aquisgrana.  The  King  is  present,  though  concealed,  and 
overhears  the  arrangements  for  his  death.  Suddenly  he 
appears  among  them  and  orders  them  to  the  block.  Ernani, 
as  a  duke,  even  though  proscribed,  demands  the  right  to  die 
with  the  other  nobles  but  the  King  ultimately  pardons  them 
all  and  consents  to  the  union  of  Ernani  and  Elvira.  The 
lovers  are  not  destined  for  happiness,  however,  for  on  their 
wedding-eve,  Silva  blows  the  fatal  signal  and,  true  to  his 
promise,  the  bridegroom  kills  himself. 

"  Ernani "  is  vigorous,  dramatic  and  full  of  color. 
Its  concerted  numbers  are  especially  admirable  and  the 
opera,  although  one  of  Verdi's  earliest  creations,   discloses 


ERNANI  213 

unmistakably  his  musical  individuality.  It  was  one  of  the 
works  which  served  firmly  to  establish  his  position  as  one 
of  the  world's  master  composers  of  opera. 

Especially  admirable  in  the  score  are  the  chorus  of 
banditti  and  mountaineers,  which  opens  the  opera,  "  Allegri, 
beviami  "  ("Merrily,  Let's  be  drinking");  Ernani's  aria, 
"  Come  rugiada  al  cespite  "  ("  Just  as  the  dew  to  parched 
earth");  Elvira's  aria,  "  Ernani,  involami "  ("  Ernani,  ah 
come  to  me  "),  one  of  Verdi's  most  beautiful  efforts;  Silva's 
bass  solo,  "Infelice!  e  tuo  credevi  "  ("Unhappy  one!  thou 
didst  believe")  ;  the  conspiracy  chorus;  the  great  septet  and 
chorus,  "  O  Sommo  Carlo,"  most  familiar  under  the  title 
"  Crowned  with  the  tempest ;  "  and  the  duet  of  Ernani  and 
Elvira  in  the  last  act,  "  Cessaro  i  Suoni "  ("  Now  cease  the 
sounds  "). 


STRADELLA 

"  Stradella,"  a  romantic  opera  in  three  acts,  with  music 
by  Friedrich  von  Flotow  and  words  after  the  French  by  W. 
Friedrich,  is  founded  on  the  story  of  a  semi-historical  char- 
acter, Alessandro  Stradella,  the  singer.  It  was  first  pro- 
duced as  a  lyric  drama  at  the  Palais  Royal  Theatre,  Paris, 
in  1837,  but  was  rewritten  and  presented  in  Hamburg,  Dec. 
30,  1844,  in  its  present  form  and  under  the  title  "  Alessandro 
Stradella." 

CHARACTERS. 

Stradella,  a  celebrated  Venetian  singer. 
Leonora,  ward  of  Bassi. 
Signer  Bassi,  a  wealthy  citizen. 

,,  ,     ,.     '    y    assassins  hired  by  Bassi. 
Malvolio,     j 

Pupils,  maskers  and  peasants. 

The  time  of  the  opera  is  1658,  A.  D. 

Stradella,  the  singer,  falls  in  love  with  Leonora,  the 
ward  of  Bassi,  who  himself  has  planned  to  espouse  her. 
During  the  Venetian  carnival,  Stradella  and  Leonora  evade 
her  guardian  and  fly  to  Rome  to  be  married.  Bassi,  whose 
methods  are  to  the  point,  hires  Malvolio  and  Barbarino  to 
trace  them  to  their  retreat,  where  Stradella  is  to  be  mur- 
dered, and  his  bride  brought  back  to  Venice.  The  assassins 
disguise  themselves  as  pilgrims  bent  on  business  of  the  soul 
and  easily  gain  a  refuge  in  Stradella's  house,  even  finding  a 


216  OPERAS 

place  at  the  wedding-feast.  They  are  so  touched,  however, 
by  their  host's  marvelous  singing,  that  their  errand  grows 
distasteful  and  they  hesitate  in  their  purpose. 

Bassi  comes  in  person  to  see  that  his  work  is  well  done. 
He  upbraids  his  hirelings  for  their  weakness  and,  by  many 
times  increasing  the  reward,  exacts  another  promise  from 
them  to  dispose  of  his  enemy.  Bassi  and  his  men  conceal 
themselves,  ready  to  rush  out  upon  their  victim,  but  again 
Stradella's  lovely  voice  thwarts  their  purpose.  They  hear 
him  rehearse  a  hymn  to  the  Virgin,  which  he  is  to  sing  in 
public  on  the  morrow,  a  performance  so  exquisite  and 
moving  that  they  throw  away  their  daggers  and,  falling  at 
his  feet,  confess  all  and  beg  henceforth  to  be  called  his 
friends.  Even  Bassi  is  repentant  and  craves  forgiveness, 
which  Stradella  freely  gives  to  them  all. 

It  has  frequently  been  said  in  criticism  that  Flotow 
wrote  too  palpably  for  effect  but  it  cannot  be  denied  by  his 
detractors  that  many  of  the  melodies  of  "  Stradella  "  have 
more  real  sentiment  than  is  usual  with  contemporaneous 
compositions. 

Among  admired  selections  from  the  first  act  of  the 
opera  are  Stradella's  serenade,  "  List,  lady.  List !  while  true 
love  singeth "  and  the  animated  carnival  chorus.  In  Act 
II  occur  Leonora's  bridal  song  "  Be  witness  to  my  young 
heart's  dreaming ; "  the  drinking  duet  of  the  bravos ;  the 
terzetto,  sung  by  the  hesitating  assassins,  "  Tell  me  now, 
friend  Barbarino."  and  Stradella's  lovely  hymn  to  the 
Virgin,  "  Virgin  Mary ;  ever  divinely,"  which  now  is  sung 
to  the  words,  "  Pity,  O  Savior." 


TANNHAUSER 

"  Tannhauser,"  or  "  The  Singer's  Contest  at  the  Wart- 
burg,"  a  grand  romantic  opera  in  three  acts  with  text  and 
music  by  Richard  Wagner,  was  first  presented  at  the  Royal 
Opera,  Dresden,  Oct.  20,  1845. 

CHARACTERS. 

Hermann,  Landgrave  of  Thuringia. 
Tannhauser. 

Wolfram  von  Eschenbach. 
Walter  von  der  Vogelweide.      1   minstrels. 
Biterolf. 

Heinrich  der  Schreiber. 
Reimar  von  Zweter. 
Elisabeth,  niece  of  the  Landgrave. 
Venus. 

A  young  herdsman. 
The  Thuringian  nobility. 

Ladies,  pages,  old  and  young  pilgrims,  sirens,  naiads, 
nymphs  and  bacchantes. 

Holda,  the  Teutonic  Venus,  makes  her  abode  in  a 
cavern  in  the  mountain  Horselberg  or  Venusberg,  where, 
surrounded  by  her  train,  the  goddess  holds  her  voluptuous 
court.  She  dwells  thus  near  the  haunts  of  men  to  be  better 
able  to  lure  them  into  slavery.  Among  her  victims  is 
Tannhauser,   one  of  the  most   famous  of   the   Thuringian 


218  OPERAS 

minstrels,  who  has  left  the  world  above  to  bask  in  the  fatal 
beauty  of  the  goddess  and  to  enjoy  the  lustful  pleasures  of 
her  kingdom.  We  are  afforded  in  the  opera  a  glimpse  of 
the  outer  fairness  of  this  sensual  monarchy.  We  see  the 
grotto  extending  to  interminable  distances  and  bathed  in 
rosy  light.  We  behold  the  form  of  Venus  stretched  upon 
a  couch,  while  Tannhauser  reclines  beside  her,  his  head 
reposing  in  her  lap.  Lovers  idle  languidly,  half  tired  of 
caresses;  nymphs  sway  to  voluptuous  music;  a  procession  of 
bacchantes  reels  through  a  drunken  dance;  by  the  lake  are 
seen  the  gleaming  figures  of  bathing  naiads  and  from  its 
distant  surface  floats  the  invitation  of  the  sirens. 

Amid  such  seductive  scenes  has  the  straying  minstrel 
dwelt  for  many  months.  But  the  soul-destroying  pleasures 
afforded  by  the  high  priestess  of  love  have  not  yet  brought 
forgetfulness  and  Tannhauser  now  remembers  the  life  in 
the  outer  world  with  its  simple  but  wholesome  duties  and 
pleasures.  Especially  does  he  recall  the  fairest  and  gentlest 
of  maidens,  who  once  thrilled  to  his  songs  in  the  musical 
tournament,  —  the  Princess  Elisabeth,  niece  of  the  Land- 
grave. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  action,  a  longing  to  return  to 
his  own  world  has  awakened  in  the  breast  of  Tannhauser. 
Venus,  vexed  and  disappointed  to  find  her  influence  waning, 
breaks  into  impassioned  arguments  to  prove  his  folly.  But 
the  man's  human  heart  speaks  conclusively: 

Alas,  'tis  but  the  gods  supernal 
Find  joy  and  bliss  in  love  eternal; 
My  heart  longs  not  alone  for  pleasure, 
Of  grief,  too,  it  must  have  its  measure. 

At  last  Venus  overwhelms  her  dissatisfied  guest  with  male- 
dictions and  hints  that  he  already  has  remained  too  long 
with  her  to  hope  for  salvation. 

"  I  shall  be  saved  by  the  Virgin's  grace,"  he  exclaims 
and  at  the  sound  of  the  holy  name  which  has  not  crossed 
his  lips  for  a  year,  Venus  and  her  kingdom  disappear. 


TANNHAUSER  219 

Tannhauser  finds  himself  in  a  quiet  green  valley  near 
the  Castle  of  the  Wartburg,  with  the  blue  sky  of  heaven 
above  him.  There  is  a  wayside  shrine  near  by  and,  in  place 
of  bacchanal  revels,  there  comes  to  his  ears  the  tinkle  of  the 
bells  of  cows  and  the  voice  of  a  herdsman  singing  on  a  knoll. 
He  hears  in  the  distance  the  notes  of  a  hymn  issuing  from 
the  lips  of  a  party  of  pilgrims  as  they  move  along  the 
mountain  path  on  their  way  to  Rome.  The  vocal  expression 
of  their  simple  faith  awakens  in  Tannhauser  a  sincere 
desire  for  repentance  and  forgiveness. 

He  sinks  to  his  knees  before  the  shrine  and  is  dis- 
covered there  by  a  hunting  party,  which  includes  the  Land- 
grave and  the  minstrels.  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  being 
among  the  latter.  They  urge  their  old  comrade  to  return 
to  the  Wartburg.  Feeling  himself  now  alien  and  oppressed 
by  a  sense  of  remorse,  he  refuses,  until  the  noble  Wolfram, 
who  himself  loves  Elisabeth,  speaks  her  name  and  tells  him 
that  since  his  disappearance  she  has  grown  wan  and  has 
sought  only  seclusion,  Tannhauser,  deeply  moved,  embraces 
his  whilom  associates  and  moves  on  with  them  to  the  Wart- 
burg, led  by  the  thought  of  again  seeing  Elisabeth. 

The  second  act  takes  place  in  the  hall  of  the  minstrels 
in  the  Wartburg,  whose  threshold  Elisabeth,  who  has  learned 
of  Tannhauser's  return,  crosses  now  for  the  first  time  in 
many  months.  Wolfram  and  Tannhauser  enter  and  Tann- 
hauser falls  at  the  feet  of  the  agitated  princess,  who  tells 
him  that  he  should  not  kneel  in  a  hall  which  as  a  singer  is 
his  kingdom  by  right.  So  pure  is  her  mind  and  spirit  that 
the  possibility  that  he  can  be  touched  with  dishonor  does 
not  occur  to  her  and  she  gladly  exchanges  with  him  a 
confession  of  love,  while  Wolfram  in  the  background 
watches  what  can  but  mean  the  death  of  his  own  hopes. 
The  knights  and  ladies  assemble  and  the  Landgrave 
announces  as  the  theme  of  the  song  contest,  "  The  nature 
and  power  of  Love,"  He  hints  that  the  hand  of  the 
Princess  Elisabeth  shall  be  the  prize,  for  he  has  fathomed 


220  OPERAS 

her  heart  and  remembers  Tannhauser's  former  supremacy 
as  a  singer. 

Wolfram's  name  is  drawn  first  and  he  sings  of  a  chaste 
ideal  as  pure  as  crystalline  waters,  an  ideal  which  he  is  con- 
tent to  worship  from  afar,  lifting  his  eyes  to  it  as  to  a  star. 
Walter  von  der  Vogelweide  voices  his  poetical  conviction 
that  the  crystal  fountain's  sacred  treasure  is  spiritual  bliss 
rather  than  lawless  pleasure.  But  Tannhauser,  as  if  again 
under  the  spell  of  Venus  and  mindful  only  of  the  voluptuous 
joys  of  unholy  love,  scoffs  at  their  pale  ideals  in  impassioned 
terms  and  even  boldly  recommends  the  delights  of  Venus* 
abode.  Expressions  of  horror  are  heard  on  every  hand  and 
women  hastily  rush  from  the  hall.  As  the  knights  press 
upon  Tannhauser  with  drawn  swords,  Elisabeth,  who  has 
remained  behind,  springs  forward  and  begs  that  he  be  not 
forever  doomed  to  hell  but  that  he  be  allowed  time  to  live 
and  repent.  Touched  by  her  pleading,  his  accusers  draw 
back.  The  sensual  madness  of  Tannhauser  slips  from  him 
like  a  besmirched  garment  and  he  falls  prostrate.  The 
Landgrave  advises  him  to  seek  grace  in  the  Eternal  City 
and,  as  the  song  of  a  party  of  young  pilgrims  floats  up  from 
the  valley,  the  disgraced  and  repentant  singer  hastens  to 
join  them. 

A  weary  stretch  of  time  has  elapsed  before  the  third  and 
last  act,  the  scene  of  which  is  again  the  peaceful  valley 
overlooked  by  the  stately  towers  of  the  Wartburg.  Count- 
less hours  have  been  spent  by  the  saintly  Elisabeth  praying 
before  the  wayside  shrine  for  Tannhauser's  salvation  and 
safe  return,  the  devoted  Wolfram  watching  over  her  from 
a  distance.  They  are  discovered  there  when  the  curtain 
rises.  There  steals  upon  their  ears  the  chant  of  returning 
pilgrims  rejoicing  in ,  their  home-coming.  Elisabeth,  in  an 
agony  of  suspense,  scans  the  procession  of  devotees  for  a 
glimpse  of  Tannhauser.  He  is  not  among  those  who  have 
come  back  from  Rome! 

As  the  song  dies  away  and  the  sun  goes  down,  she 
turns  again  to  the  shrine.     With  all  desire  for  earth  ban- 


TANNHAUSER  221 

ished  by  Tannhauser's  failure  to  return,  she  prays  to  the 
Virgin  for  death  and,  feeling  that  its  wing  already  has 
brushed  her  cheek,  she  sadly  declines  the  proffered  escort 
of  Wolfram,  bids  him  farewell  in  pathetic  silence  and  walks 
slowly  homeward.  Wolfram,  having  watched  until  she  has 
disappeared,  seats  himself  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  and,  taking 
his  harp,  sings  of  his  love  to  the  evening  star.  The  shades 
of  night  settle  deeper  and  deeper  and  Tannhauser,  clad  in 
tattered  pilgrim's  garments  and  leaning  dejectedly  upon  his 
staff,  makes  a  weary  progress  up  the  mountain  path. 
Wolfram  recognizes  him  with  difficulty  but,  when  ques- 
tioned, Tannhauser  tells  of  a  fruitless  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 
Upheld  by  the  thought  of  Elisabeth  and  her  faith,  he  volun- 
tarily bore  the  severest  penance;  walked  on  thorns  and 
stones  with  bleeding  feet;  refused  to  quench  his  thirst  in 
days  of  raging  heat  and  stretched  his  weary  limbs  in  snow 
and  ice;  leaving  all  comforts  for  those  who  were  less  sin- 
burdened.  But  when,  the  journey  accomplished,  he  im- 
plored pardon  of  God's  Viceroy,  he  was  told  that  there  was 
no  more  hope  of  redemption  for  him  than  there  was  that 
the  staff  in  the  Pope's  hand  would  ever  again  grow  fresh 
and  green.  Since  earth  and  heaven  hold  no  promise  for 
him,  he  thinks  of  Venus'  parting  invitation  to  return,  and 
resolves  to  accept  it.  As  he  makes  this  declaration,  a  rosy 
mist  appears,  through  which  gleam  the  forms  of  dancing 
nymphs  and,  as  they  float  aside,  Venus  is  disclosed,  lying 
upon  her  couch.  Tannhauser  is  about  to  yield  to  her  allure- 
ment when  the  faithful  Wolfram  again  utters  the  name  of 
Elisabeth  and  Venus  and  her  attendants  vanish,  baffled. 

The  sound  of  a  funeral  bell  is  heard  from  the  Wart- 
burg  and,  as  the  morning  breaks,  the  bier  upon  which  lies 
the  body  of  Elisabeth  is  borne  slowly  down  the  hill.  Call- 
ing upon  her  soul  to  plead  for  him  to  heaven,  Tannhauser 
sinks  lifeless  to  the  ground.  As  the  rising  sun  bathes  the 
valley  in  light,  a  party  of  young  pilgrims  appear  bearing  the 
Pope's  staff,  budded  and  leaved  in  green,  a  symbol  of  Tann- 
hauser's redemption. 


222  OPERAS 

Although  "  Tannhauser "  was  not  written  until  many 
years  later,  its  seed  was  sown  in  the  mind  of  Wagner  when 
he  was  but  a  lad.  At  that  sentimental  period  when  ambi- 
tions and  ideals  were  beginning  to  take  form  in  his  great 
mind;  when  the  figure  of  Weber,  passing  the  house,  was 
watched  by  the  boy  with  "  something  akin  to  religious  awe ; " 
when  his  musical  instruction  at  the  hands  of  Gottlieb 
Muller  had  come  to  grief  and  he  had  begun  to  doubt  his 
own  musical  aptitude  —  then  it  was  that  he  took  refuge  in 
libraries  and,  browsing  therein,  met  many  of  the  stories  and 
legends  which  he  developed  in  his  maturity.  He  found  in 
the  novels  of  Hoffmann  the  story  of  the  Mastersingers  of 
Nuremberg  and  in  the  verses  of  Ludwig  Tieck,  the  legend 
of  Tannhauser.  Of  this  legend,  which  is  well  suited  to 
dramatic  purposes,  Wagner  made  a  successful  moderniza- 
tion. The  sketch  was  drawn  up  by  him  in  1842,  during  a 
stay  in  the  Bohemian  mountains  and  was  completed  three 
years  later. 

In  this  work,  Wagner  evinces  his  tendency  to  shake 
off  Italian  conventionality.  Among  its  distinguishing 
features  is  the  association  of  a  certain  instrument  or  class 
of  instruments  with  one  of  the  characters,  as  the  wood 
winds  with  Elisabeth,  a  method  employed  before  by  Gluck 
and  others.  While  the  music  is  less  strongly  individualized 
than  is  that  of  his  later  works,  it  is,  nevertheless,  unmis- 
takably "  Wagnerian." 

The  later  employment  of  representative  themes  (leit- 
motifs) is  indicated  and  the  remarkable  ability  to  char- 
acterize clearly  in  music  the  different  personages  in  the 
drama  is  already  finely  in  evidence.  The  story  is  one 
which  can  never  grow  old  for  it  has  a  deep  human  interest 
and  in  it  as  ever,  Wagner's  active  and  massive  intellect 
makes  it  apparently  impossible  for  him  to  conceive  of  a 
story  without  some  underlying  significance.  Venus  is  not 
merely  a  beautiful  woman  but  represents  a  power  antago- 
nistic to  Christianity,   while  the  ethical   idea  which   imbues 


TANNHAUSER  223 

"  Tannhauser,"  as  it  does  those  other  dramas  of  Wagner's 
which  are  based  on  mythical  tales,  is  that  salvation  comes 
to  humanity  through  the  love  of  woman  and  through  her 
glory  in  self-sacrifice. 

The  reception  of  "  Tannhauser "  was,  in  the  main, 
unenthusiastic.  While  an  occasional  hearer  found  in  it 
something  more  than  promise,  the  majority  called  its  music 
ugly  and  critical  shoulders  were  shrugged  even  over  the  song 
of  the  "  Evening  Star,"  which  nowadays  is  regarded  as 
essentially  Italian  and  distinctly  "  un Wagnerian "  in  its 
outspoken  melodiousness.  The  overture  to  "  Tannhauser " 
is  now  one  of  the  most  generally  known  and  widely  admired 
numbers  in  the  entire  orchestral  repertory  and  is  regarded  by 
layman  and  musician  alike  as  one  of  Wagner's  master 
achievements.  The  so-called  "  Parisian  Bacchanale,"  which 
was  composed  for  the  presentation  of  the  opera  in  Paris, 
an  event  which  resulted  in  a  disgraceful  exhibition  of  ill 
will  by  certain  influential  parties  in  Paris,  is  an  elaboration 
of  the  music  of  the  Venusberg  scene.  It  is  followed  by  an 
impassioned  duet  for  Tannhauser  and  Venus.  There  comes 
the  change  to  the  valley  of  the  Wartburg  and  the  shepherd 
is  heard  singing  his  roundelay  to  Spring;  the  pilgrim's 
chorus  is  chanted  and  there  is  an  elaborate  ensemble  for 
men's  voices  when  the  Landgrave  and  the  singers  persuade 
Tannhauser  to  rejoin  them.  Elisabeth's  greeting  to  the  hall 
of  song  begins  the  second  act.  It  is  one  of  the  selections 
beloved  by  concert  sopranos.  The  duet  for  Tannhauser  and 
Elisabeth  which  follows  is  of  exceptional  beauty  and  the 
song  of  Wolfram  at  the  commencement  of  the  tournament, 
as  well  as  the  great  finale  of  the  act  are  among  the  finest 
pages  in  the  score.  The  "  Prayer "  of  Elisabeth,  the 
"  Evening  Star "  romanza  for  Wolfram  and  the  long  and 
dramatic  "  Recital  "  for  Tannhauser  form  the  chief  musical 
incidents  of  the  third  act,  which  is  preceded  by  an  orchestral 
introduction  descriptive  of  the  pilgrimage  and  condemnation 
of  Tannhauser. 


ALBERT  RAYMOND  ALVAREZ, 

"  Maritar    ^^  Title  Role  of  Le  Prophete. 
Fitzb?-Frerich  operatic  tenor.    A  man  of  splendid  physique    sic 
Ba  and   a  very   fine  actor.     Born  at   Bordeaux  in   1860.  ">' ^3 
pi    Began  his  musical  studies  when  very  young-.    At  the 
age   of   eighteen   entered   the   army   as   musical   con- 
ductor,   ,  After    five   years    he    gave    up    his    military 
career  and  went  to  Paris  to  study  music.    Made  great 
progress  at  the  Conservatory,  shortly  making  his  de- 
but at  the  Royal  Opera  in  Ghent  and  his  first  appear- 
ance in  Paris  in  1892,  at  the  Grand  Opera,  as  Faust. 
He  made  successful  tours  in  Spain,  Russia  and  Eng- 
landi  and  in  1898-1899  visited  the  United  States.    His 
repertoire  includes    forty-five    operas,    in    eleven  of 
which  he  created  the  principal  parts.     He  has,  per- 
haps, been  most  successful  in  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Aida, 

and  Le  Prophete. 

:a.na    IS   a    beautiftil   ''""^yj.sy   ^/ri    witn    ;i    ci. 

when   singing   irj   the  public   square   in 

Dtivating  the  gay  King  Qiarks,  who  is 

'    .     He  gives  the  maid  a  piece  of  i 

:'3Stens  away  but  not  before  the  kt\ 

of  his  )on  Jose,  have  discovered  his  identity.     To 

further  a  '  '      '  '       ■  -  "f  ect  to  the  nc:^-'    • 

Queen,  Dc ;   .  -^g  '"  this  ev 


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MARITANA 

"Maritana,"  an  opera  in  three  acts,  with  text  by 
Fitzball,  founded  upon  the  romance  of  "  Don  Caesar  de 
Bazan  "  and  with  music  by  William  Vincent  Wallace,  was 
produced  at  Drury  Lane,  London,  Nov.  15,  1845. 

CHARACTERS. 

Charles  II.,  King  of  Spain. 

Don  Jose  de  Santarem,  his  minister. 

Don  Caesar  de  Bazan. 

Marquis  de  Montefiori. 

Lazarillo. 

Alcalde. 

Captain  of  Guards. 

Maritana,  a  Gypsy. 

Marchioness  de  Montefiori. 

Nobles,     alguazils,     soldiers,     men-at-arms,     populace, 

gypsies. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  Madrid. 

Maritana  is  a  beautiful  Gypsy  girl  with  a  charming 
voice  who,  when  singing  in  the  public  square  in  Madrid, 
succeeds  in  captivating  the  gay  King  Charles,  who  is  in  the 
crowd  in  disguise.  He  gives  the  maid  a  piece  of  gold  of 
much  value  and  hastens  away  but  not  before  the  keen  eyes 
of  his  minister,  Don  Jose,  have  discovered  his  identity.  To 
further  certain  designs  of  his  own  in  respect  to  the  neglected 
Queen,  Don  Jose  resolves  to  assist  the  King  in  this  evidently 


226  OPERAS 

desired  amour.  When  Maritana  offers  to  read  the  minister's 
palm,  he  says  he  will  tell  her  fortune  instead  and  paints  for 
her  a  career  in  which  such  splendors  as  a  palace  and  a  prince 
for  a  husband  are  included.  As  Maritana  is  ambitious,  she 
is  delighted  beyond  measure. 

In  the  meantime,  Don  Caesar  de  Bazan  comes  striding 
out  of  a  humble  tavern,  a  bit  uncertainly  it  is  true,  for  he 
is  not  averse  to  wine  as  well  as  the  other  loves  of  a  good 
fellow.  In  spite  of  the  shabbiness  of  his  attire,  his  bearing 
is  that  of  a  gentleman.  Don  Jose,  who  is  an  old  acquaint- 
ance, is  surprised  to  see  him  so  down  at  the  heel.  When 
the  minister  speaks  of  the  absence  of  his  one-time  numerous 
followers,  Bazan  returns  that  he  has  them  yet  but  that  they 
are  all  creditors.  His  misfortunes  have  not  embittered  him, 
however,  and  his  first  impulse  is,  as  ever,  toward  generosity. 
So  when  the  poor  youth  Lazarillo,  who  has  been  trying  to 
make  away  with  himself,  appears,  he  defends  him  against 
his  oppressors  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  knows  dueling  in 
Holy  Week  is  punishable  by  hanging.  For  this,  he  is 
arrested  and  cast  into  prison. 

In  the  second  act,  we  find  Don  Caesar  in  prison  with 
the  faithful  Lazarillo  watching  over  him.  He  wakes  to  find 
that  only  two  hours  of  life  remain  but  not  even  this  can  dim 
his  gaiety  and  courage.  He  playfully  asks  the  boy  how  he 
would  spend  them  had  he  but  two  hours  to  live  and,  when 
Lazarillo  timidly  suggests  sending  for  a  priest  and  con- 
fessing his  sins,  Don  Caesar  laughs  and  says  it  could  never 
be  done  in  two  hours.  Don  Jose  comes  with  proffers  of 
friendship  and  proposes  to  give  him  his  one  wish,  a  sol- 
dier's death,  if  he  will  consent  to  be  married.  Don  Caesar 
quite  willing,  assumes  the  bridal  apparel  provided  and  is  soon 
the  husband  of  a  heavily  veiled  lady.  Previous  to  this, 
however,  Lazarillo  has  brought  in  a  paper  which  Don  Jose, 
discovering  it  to  be  the  king's  pardon,  intercepts.  After 
the  bride  has  gone  and  while  Don  Caesar  is  feasting  with 
his  executioners,   Lazarillo  extracts  the    bullets    from    the 


MARITANA  227 

arquebuses.  When  they  are  discharged,  Don  Caesar  feigns 
death  and  later  on  walks  away  unhurt. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  salon  in  the  palace  of  the 
Marquis  and  Marchioness  of  Montefiori,  where  Don  Jose 
brings  Maritana,  who  fancies  she  has  been  married  to  the 
King.  He  reminds  them  of  past  obligations,  requests  them 
to  recognize  in  her  a  long-lost  niece  and  to  introduce  her  as 
such.  Maritana  is  presented  to  the  King,  who  is  very 
attentive,  for  Don  Jose  has  promised  to  insure  their  meet- 
ing at  an  appointed  hour.  Maritana  is  deeply  dejected  not 
to  find  in  him  the  dashing  Don  Caesar,  Soon,  however, 
this  latter  gentleman  arrives  safe  and  sound,  much  to  the 
amazement  of  Don  Jose, .  and  demands  his  wife.  The 
intriguer  brings  forth  the  old  Marchioness  and  Don  Caesar 
is  so  disappointed  that  he  agrees  with  alacrity  to  sign  a 
paper  relinquishing  her  and  has  the  pen  in  his  hand  when 
he  hears  Maritana's  voice  and  declares  that  it  was  with  her 
that  he  knelt  at  the  altar.     The  act  ends  with  his  arrest. 

In  the  third  act,  Maritana  is  discovered  a  prisoner  in  a 
magnificent  villa  of  the  King,  She  realizes  that  she  is  the 
victim  of  a  plot  and  in  her  purity  persistently  repulses  all 
the  royal  advances,  although  Don  Jose  still  hopes  to  see  his 
heinous  plans  succeed.  Here  Don  Caesar,  seeking  his  bride, 
comes  only  to  find  the  king  there  before  him.  The  inter- 
view is  most  amusing,  for  in  his  confusion,  Charles  declares 
that  he  is  Don  Caesar  de  Bazan  and  his  vis-a-vis  returns 
that  he  himself  is  then  the  king  of  Spain.  For  the  first 
time  Don  Caesar  learns  that  he  has  been  pardoned  and, 
while  the  king  is  absent  for  a  few  moments,  he  and  Mari- 
tana find  that  their  love  is  mutual,  Don  Jose's  treachery 
and  his  intended  insult  to  the  Queen  are  discovered  by  Don 
Caesar,  beneath  whose  sword  he  falls.  In  gratitude,  the 
King  makes  him  governor  of  Valencia,  a  locality  especially 
desirable  because  it  is  distant  enough  to  be  beyond  the  easy 
access  of  creditors. 

This  delightfully  humorous  and  melodious  opera  con- 
tains many  popular  ballads,  among  them  being,  in  the  first 


228  OPERAS 

act,  Maritana's  song,  "  It  was  a  Knight "  and  her  lovely 
romanza,  "  'Tis  the  harp  in  the  air ; "  the  duet  of  Maritana 
and  Don  Jose  "Of  fairy  wand  had  I  the  power;"  Don 
Caesar's  merry  drinking  song,  "All  the  world  over ; "  the 
chorus,  "  Pretty  Gitana,  tell  us  what  the  fates  decree  "  and 
spirited  finale  ensemble. 

In  the  second  act  are  Lazarillo's  song  over  Don  Caesar 
sleeping,  "Alas,  those  chimes  so  sweetly  stealing ; "  Don 
Caesar's  stirring  song,  "  Yes,  let  me  like  a  soldier  fall ;  "  the 
King's  aria,  "  The  Mariner  in  his  barque  "  and  the  finale, 
"  What  Mystery."  In  the  third  act  occurs  that  much-loved 
song  by  Maritana,  "  Scenes  that  are  the  brightest ; "  the 
duet  of  Don  Caesar  and  the  King,  when  they  meet  each 
under  the  other's  name ;  "  Holy  Mother,  guide  his  foot- 
steps "  sung  by  Maritana  and  Don  Caesar's  tender  song, 
"  There  is  a  flower." 


MARTHA 

"Martha,"  or  "The  Market  at  Richmond,"  a  comic 
opera  in  four  acts  with  music  by  Friedrich  von  Flotow  and 
libretto  by  St.  George  and  Friedrich,  was  first  presented  at 
Vienna,  Nov.  25,  1847.  It  is  an  elaboration  of  "  Lady 
Henrietta,  or  the  Servant  of  Greenwich ; "  a  ballet-panto- 
mime, with  text  by  St.  George  and  music  by  Flotow,  Burg- 
muller  and  Deldevez,  which  was  suggested  by  an  actual 
incident  and  was  presented  in  Paris  in  1844. 

CHARACTERS. 

Lady  Henrietta  Durham,  disguised  as  Martha,  a  peasant 

maid. 
Nancy,  her  attendant,  disguised  as  Julia. 
Lionel,        )  , 

Plunkett,    I  t^^  y°""^  ^^'■"^^"- 
Lord  Tristan,  an  elderly  cousin  of  Lady  Henrietta. 
Courtiers,  pages,  hunters,  farmers,  servants. 

The  scene  of  the  opera  is  laid  in  England  and  the  time 
is  set  variously,  in  the  German,  French  and  Italian  versions, 
although  usually  the  period  is  that  of  Queen  Anne.  The 
story  concerns  the  lark  of  a  young  woman  who,  like  many 
before  and  since  her  time,  has  for  the  moment  grown  tired 
of  being  a  great  lady.  The  lark,  it  may  be  added,  has 
momentous  consequences.  The  heroine  is  Lady  Henrietta, 
who   with   her   companion    Nancy,    disguise   themselves    as 


230  OPERAS 

servant-maids  and,  calling  themselves  Martha  and  Julia,  go 
to  the  fair  at  Richmond,  accompanied  by  Henrietta's  cousin 
and  admirer,  Sir  Tristan,  who  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
state  does  not  lend  his  approval  to  the  escapade.  To  the 
fair  come  also  Plunkett,  a  squire,  and  Lionel,  his  foster- 
brother,  whose  appearance  and  bearing  for  one  of  his 
station  are  unaccountably  distinguished.  The  fair  combines 
the  features  of  an  employment  agency  with  its  other  attrac- 
tions and  "  Martha  "  and  "  Julia  "  join  the  peasants  who 
are  there  to  secure  positions.  On  account  of  their  beauty, 
they  experience  little  difficulty  in  being  hired  and  before 
they  realize  it  the  sheriff  has  bound  them  to  Plunkett  and 
Lionel  for  a  year's  service,  the  contract  being  clinched  with 
the  payment  of  earnest-money  by  the  men. 

The  adventure  is  becoming  rather  serious  to  the  girls, 
who  are  carried  off  by  their  new  masters  under  the  very 
nose  and  against  the  protestations  of  the  horrified  "  John," 
as  Sir  Tristan  has  called  himself.  They  find  themselves  at 
the  farmhouse  and  the  thrifty  Plunkett  sets  them  at  once 
to  work.  But  they  do  not  even  know  how  to  spin.  Their 
employers  display  patience  really  wonderful  under  the  cir- 
cumstances and  set  to  work  to  show  them.  Plunkett  seems 
to  enjoy  the  office  of  instructor  to  the  pretty  Julia  and, 
when  she  throws  over  her  wheel  and  runs  away  in  a  pet,  he 
follows  her.  This  leaves  Martha  alone  with  Lionel,  who  is 
already  head  over  ears  in  love  with  her,  and  is  quite  ready 
to  confess  it.  She  finds  him  much  to  her  liking  in  every 
way  except  station.  However,  she  will  only  laugh,  while 
he  is  in  deep  despair.  Finally,  the  maids  are  directed  to 
their  sleeping  apartment  from  which,  aided  by  Sir  Tristan, 
who  has  followed  them,  they  escape  and  are  carried  away 
in  his  coach. 

The  third  act  takes  place  at  a  court  hunt  and  Lionel 
and  Plunkett  recognize  their  runaway  servants  among  the 
ladies.  Plunkett  tries  to  seize  Nancy  but  is  prevented. 
Lionel  snatches  an  interview  with  Lady  Henrietta,  whose 
image  he  has  not  been  able  to  erase  from  his  heart.     While 


MARTHA  231 

miserable  at  the  apparent  hopelessness  of  his  suit,  he  finally 
thinks  of  a  ring  in  his  possession,  which  he  has  been  told 
to  present  to  the  queen  if  ever  in  trouble,  and  which  he 
hopes  may  prove  a  clue  to  his  parentage,  of  which,  by  the 
way,  he  is  ignorant.  It  is  conveyed  to  the  queen  for  him 
and  the  jewel  proves  indisputably  that  he  is  the  heir  to  the 
late  Earl  of  Derby  who  has  left  a  rich  estate. 

The  last  act  is  devoted  to  the  settlement  of  matters  to 
everybody's  satisfaction.  Lady  Henrietta,  who  has  long 
been  in  love  with  Lionel,  tries  to  make  amends  for  past 
coyness,    while    Plunkett    triumphantly    carries    off    Nancy. 

"  Martha "  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  all  light 
operas  and  its  manifold  presentations  have  but  increased  the 
favor  it  always  has  enjoyed.  Nearly  all  the  numbers  in 
"  Martha "  have  for  years  been  household  favorites  and 
to  name  them  would  be  to  list  nearly  every  solo  and  ensemble 
in  the  score.  High  in  especial  favor,  however,  stand  the 
familiar  ballad,  "  'Tis  the  last  rose  of  Summer,"  which 
Flotow  interpolated  in  the  scene  preceding  Lionel's  love- 
avowal  to  Martha ;  the  captivating  "  Spinning  Wheel 
Quartet,"  a  number  which  for  merriment  and  taking 
melodiousness  has  few  equals ;  the  beautiful  "  Good-Night " 
quartet;  Plunkett's  drinking  song  in  praise  of  porter; 
Lionel's  universally  known  romanza,  "  Like  a  Dream 
Bright  and  Fair  "  ("  M'  appari  ")  ;  the  soprano  solo,  "  Here, 
at  least,  in  tranquil  silence  "  and  the  concerted  finale  of  the 
second  act 


THE  MERRY  WIVES  OF  WINDSOR 

"  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor  "  is  a  comic  opera  in 
three  acts,  its  score  by  Otto  Nicolai  and  its  text  by  H.  S. 
Mosenthal.     It  was  first  presented  in  Berlin,  March  9,  1849. 

CHARACTERS. 

Mrs.  Ford 

Mrs.  Page 

Anne  Page 

Fenton 

Mr.  Ford 

Mr.  Page 

Slender 

Dr.  Caius 

A  servant 

Sir  John  FalstaflF. 

Citizens  of  Windsor,  mythological  maskers,  servants. 

The  story  is  too  similar  to  that  of  Verdi's  opera,  "  Fal- 
staff,"  to  need  long  description.  Mrs.  Ford  and  Mrs.  Page, 
two  ladies  of  Windsor,  simultaneously  receive  love-letters 
from  Sir  John  FalstaflF,  a  gentleman  of  remarkable  girth. 
They  plot  together  to  play  a  practical  joke  on  him,  which 
shall  make  him  regret  his  folly.  Mrs.  Ford  summons  Fal- 
staflF to  her  house  and  Mrs.  Page  writes  her  husband  an 
anonymous  letter  warning  him  of  what  is  going  on  in  his 
absence.  In  consequence.  Ford  comes  suddenly  upon  the 
scene  and  knocks  at  the  door.     The  two  women,  apparently 


234  OPERAS 

in  great  terror,  tumble  the  huge  fellow  into  a  basket  designed 
to  hold  the  family  washing  and  bury  him  under  soiled  cloth- 
ing from  which,  with  comical  effect,  he  occasionally  emerges 
for  some  amorous  expression.  The  servants  are  summoned 
to  carry  out  the  basket  and  throw  it  in  the  water.  Ford, 
finding  the  house  empty,  is  ashamed  of  his  suspicions  and 
his  wife  is  so  hurt  by  his  injustice  that  she  faints  with 
great  effect.  In  an  earlier  scene  in  the  act,  Page  is 
besieged  by  three  suitors  for  the  hand  of  his  daughter 
Anne.  They  are  the  rich  but  stupid  Slender  whom  Page 
favors;  Dr.  Caius,  the  celebrated  French  physician,  his 
wife's  choice;  the  penniless  Fenton,  whom  the  maiden  her- 
self desires. 

Act  II  passes  at  the  Garter  Inn  at  Windsor.  Falstaflf 
enters  in  great  excitement,  disheveled  and  covered  with 
mud  and  possessed  of  a  mighty  thirst  for  wine.  He  fancies 
the  sad  affair  the  result  of  an  accident  and,  when  a  note 
comes  from  Mrs.  Ford,  telling  him  when  her  husband  will 
be  away  with  a  hunting  party,  he  readily  accepts  the  bait 
and  reveals  everything  to  Ford,  who  comes  disguised  as 
Brook  to  the  Inn.  In  consequence,  that  injured  gentleman 
again  arrives  inopportunely  and  the  buck-basket  is  again 
suggested  by  the  ladies,  but  the  Fat  Knight  demurs  and 
this  time  is  hastily  dressed  in  feminine  attire.  Ford  takes 
him  for  an  old  mischief-making  fortune-teller  and  gives  him 
a  sound  beating. 

Several  scenes  are  devoted  to  Anne's  lovers,  who  hide 
in  bushes  around  the  house  and  vow  to  slay  each  other. 
Fenton  alone  has  an  interview  and  is  happy. 

Act  III  takes  place  in  Ford's  house.  The  matter  has 
been  explained  satisfactorily  to  its  master,  and  the  "merry 
husbands "  now  take  a  hand  in  a  plot  to  further  punish 
Falstaff.  Accordingly,  Mrs.  Ford  arranges  a  midnight 
meeting  with  him  at  Heme's  Oak  in  Windsor  Park,  where 
he  is  to  come  as  Heme  the  Hunter.  Both  Mrs.  Ford  and 
Mrs.  Page  are  at  the  rendezvous  and  he  gallantly  makes 
love  to  both  at  the  same  time.     Ford,  disguised  as  the  real 


THE  MERRY  WIVES  OF  WINDSOR  235 

Heme,  falls  upon  him  for  imitating  him  and  calls  upon  all 
the  assembled  wasps  and  hornets  to  sting  him  to  repentance. 
The  terrified  Falstaff  confesses  all  and  begs  for  pardon. 
When  the  throng  unmask,  he  recognizes  the  Ford  and  Page 
families  and  all  their  neighbors. 

Earlier  in  the  day,  Mrs.  Page  has  whispered  instruc- 
tions to  her  daughter  to  be  dressed  as  a  pink  fairy  in  which 
guise  Dr.  Caius  will  take  her  to  the  forest  chapel  to  be 
married.  Her  father  has  drawn  her  aside,  and  told  her  to 
dress  as  a  green  fairy  and  Slender  will  go  through  the  same 
proceeding.  The  sly  Anne  sends  a  pink  dress  to  Caius,  and 
a  green  one  to  Slender,  and  the  two  find  to  their  horror 
that  they  have  married  each  other.  In  the  meantime,  Anne 
as  a  white  fairy  and  Fenton  as  Oberon  have  had  performed 
the  ceremony  so  long  desired  by  them. 

Nicolai's  work  is  a  capital  adaptation  of  Shakespeare's 
mirth-provoking  play.  It  is  full  of  spontaneous  good 
humor  and  captivating  melody.  Its  orchestration  is  admir- 
able. It  has  long  been  one  of  the  most  popular  of  comic 
operas  but  its  composer  was  not  to  know  of  the  success 
destined  for  it,  as  he  died  of  apoplexy  a  short  time  after 
the  score  was  finished. 

Among  the  portions  of  the  work  that  deservedly  have 
found  admiration  are  the  delightful  overture,  which  is  a 
universal  favorite;  the  comparing  of  the  love-letters  by 
Mesdames  Ford  and  Page ;  Mrs.  Ford's  soliloquy,  "  Come 
now  and  aid  me,  thou  woman's  treach'ry,"  ending  with  the 
aria,  "  What  would  be  life  then  ? "  the  drinking  song  of 
Falstaff  and  his  followers  at  the  Tavern;  Fenton's  serenade, 
"  Sweetly  sings  the  nightingale ; "  the  trio  of  Falstaff  and 
the  Merry  Wives,  "The  Bell  has  pealed  the  Midnight 
chime  "  and  the  duet  of  Anne  and  Fenton,  "  Now  tranquil 
nature  lies  in  deep  repose." 


LE  PROPHETE 

"Le  Prophete,"  or  "The  Prophet,"  is  a  grand  opera 
in  five  acts,  the  music  by  Giacomo  Meyerbeer  and  the  text 
by  Scribe.  It  was  first  presented  in  Paris,  April  16,  1849. 
Meyerbeer  bestowed  the  greatest  care  upon  its  creation, 
working  upon  it  intermittently  for  thirteen  years. 
CHARACTERS. 

John   of   Leyden,   the    Prophet,   chosen   leader   of   the 
Anabaptists. 

Bertha,  his  sweetheart. 

Fides,  mother  of  John  of  Leyden. 

Count  Oberthal,  ruler  of  the  domain  about  Dordrecht. 

Zacarie,        "V 

Gione,  V  three  Anabaptist  preachers. 

Mathisen,     ) 

Nobles,  citizens,  peasants,  soldiers,  prisoners. 

The  scene  of  the  opera  is  laid  in  Holland  and  Ger- 
many in  1543,  at  the  time  of  the  Anabaptist  uprising  and 
has  for  its  hero  the  historical  character,  John  of  I^eyden. 
The  first  act  opens  in  Dordrecht,  where  Fides,  mother  of 
John  of  Leyden,  keeps  an  inn  and  where  is  located  the 
castle  of  the  Count  of  Oberthal.  Bertha,  a  beautiful  peasant 
girl,  has  just  been  betrothed  to  John  of  Leyden  but  it  is 
necessary  to  gain  the  permission  of  the  Count  before  the 
union  may  be  consummated.  Fides  and  the  lovers  seek  the 
nobleman's  presence  but  he  is  so  charmed  with  the  girl's 


238  OPERAS 

loveliness  that  he  refuses  his  sanction  and  claims  her  for 
himself,  taking  her  and  Fides  prisoner. 

Meantime,  the  Anabaptists  from  Westphalia  arrive  for 
the  purpose  of  stirring  the  people  to  an  insurrection  against 
their  rulers.  Having  spread  abroad  their  false  promises, 
they  repair  to  the  hostelry  of  John  of  Leyden.  They  per- 
ceive in  him  a  wonderful  resemblance  to  the  portrait  of 
David  which  hangs  in  the  cathedral.  John  speaks  in  words 
of  prophecy  and  his  deeply  religious  bearing  convinces  them 
that  he  will  suit  their  needs  as  a  nominal  head.  They  offer 
to  make  him  ruler  but  this  affects  him  little  and  he  assures 
his  tempters  that  the  heart  of  Bertha  is  the  only  kingdom 
he  craves.  As  they  depart,  the  girl,  who  has  escaped  the 
Count's  vigilance,  rushes  in  to  ask  protection  of  her  lover. 
He  helps  her  to  conceal  herself  but  the  Count  follows  with 
Fides  and  threatens  to  kill  the  mother  unless  the  sweetheart 
is  delivered  to  him.  To  save  his  mother,  John  complies. 
The  Anabaptists  coming  again  to  renew  their  entreaties,  he 
this  time  submits,  hoping  that  his  new  power  will  enable  him 
to  crush  Oberthal  and,  without  his  mother's  knowledge,  he 
is  carried  forth  as  their  Prophet-King. 

The  scene  now  shifts  to  the  Anabaptist  camp  over- 
looking Miinster,  which  is  in  a  state  of  siege.  Count 
Oberthal  is  brought  in  a  captive  and  when  one  of  the  Ana- 
baptists recognizes  him  and  is  about  to  kill  him,  John  of 
Leyden  interferes.  Finding  that  Bertha  has  escaped  and  is 
now  in  Munster,  John  plans  to  take  the  city  and  he  and  the 
Anabaptists  march  upon  it,  his  conscience  troubling  him, 
however,  at  the  thirst  for  blood  displayed  by  his  followers. 

The  next  act  takes  place  in  the  city  after  its  capture. 
Fides  and  Bertha,  from  the  blood-stained  clothes  left  to 
deceive  them,  believe  that  John  is  dead,  and  that  this  new, 
great  Prophet  whom  they  never  have  seen  has  been  the 
cause  of  his  death.  In  the  cathedral  where  the  Prophet  is 
to  be  crowned  with  great  ceremony.  Fides  recognizes  this 
mighty  one  as  her  son  and  cries  aloud,  but  John  disavows 
her  and  tells  the  fanatics  to  slay  him  if  she  does  not  confirm 


LE  PROPHfiTE  239 

his  denial.  In  her  love  for  him  she  declares  that  she  has 
been  mistaken.  The  Anabaptists  fall  upon  her  and  take 
her  prisoner.  Soon  the  news  comes  that  the  emperor  is 
near  the  gates  and,  to  save  themselves,  Zacarie,  Gione  and 
Mathisen  plot  to  deliver  the  Prophet  into  his  hands.  John, 
meanwhile,  visits  his  mother  in  prison  and,  convinced  by 
her  that  he  is  in  error,  promises  to  leave  the  party. 

To  the  dungeon  of  the  castle  comes  Bertha  who  knows 
that  the  Prophet  is  within.  She  has  sworn  to  kill  him  and 
is  about  to  set  fire  to  the  gunpowder  hidden  below  them. 
When  she  sees  the  Prophet  and  realizes  that  he  and  John 
of  Leyden  are  the  same,  she  stabs  herself  and  dies  cursing 
him  for  his  perfidy.  John  resolves  to  follow  her  example. 
He  goes  to  the  banqueting-hall  of  the  castle  and  joins  the 
revelers.  The  three  betraying  Anabaptists  enter  to  give 
him  up.  Sending  his  mother  away,  he  fires  the  gunpowder 
he  has  placed  beneath  the  castle  and  all  perish  together  in 
the  flames,  Fides  coming  back  to  share  their  death. 

For  magnificent  pageantry  "  The  Prophet "  has  few 
equals.  Musically,  the  work  is  hardly  the  equal  of  its 
composer's  masterpiece  "  The  Huguenots,"  but  so  far  as 
opportunities  for  the  display  of  stage  splendor  is  concerned 
it  is  unsurpassed.  The  Coronation  scene  gives  opportunity 
for  unlimited  pomp  and  show  and  the  final  destruction  of 
the  castle  permits  the  theatre  mechanician  to  employ  his 
utmost  skill  and  exhaust  all  his  resources  for  producing 
startling  effects.  The  music  is  dramatic  and  declamatory 
rather  than  pronouncedly  lyric. 

Among  the  best  of  the  numbers  are  Bertha's  brilliant 
cavatina,  "II  cor  nel  sen"  ("My  heart  beats  joyous"); 
the  trio  of  Anabaptists,  "  O,  libertade "  ("  O  liberty"); 
John's  solo,  "  Un  impero  piii  soave "  ("Oh,  there's  an 
empire  sweeter ")  ;  Fides'  famous  aria,  "  O  figlio  mio " 
("Ah,  my  son"),  the  gem  of  the  entire  opera;  the  ballet 
music  of  the  skaters;  Fides'  song  when  she  is  reduced  to 
beggary,  "  Pieta,  pieta"   ("O  Give,  O  Give");  the  pom- 


240  OPERAS 

pous  coronation  music;  the  duet  for  John  and  Fides  and 
John's  drinking  song,  "  Beviam  e  intorno  "  ("  Let  us  drink, 
and  pass  the  cup  "). 


or 


LOHENGKIN 

«  jMADAME  ERNESTINE  SOHUMANN-HEINK, 
and    musiv      As  Ortrud  in  Wagner's  Lohengrin. 
W  Famous  German  vocalist,  who  attained  her  present 

Wv  notable  position  on  the  operatic  stage  through  con- 
j,j  stant  struggle.n  exile,  that  he  or 
sooi;  ;  S^^  ^^^  bom  in  1861  at  Lieben,  near  Prague,  and 
yvas  very  poor  in  her  youth.  She  has  been  most  suc- 
cessful in  grand  opera,  making  her  greatest  triumphs 
in  the  roles  of  Brangaene  in  Tristan  and  Isolde,  Erda 
and  Waltraute  and  the  female  roles  in  Wagner's  Ring 
dramas.   '  n 

She  is  the  motW^m  eight  children  and  has  been 
married  three  times.  Her  last  marriage  occurred  in 
1904  when  she  became  the  wife  of  Wm.  Rapp,  Jr.,  of 
Chicago,  many  years  her  junior. 

The  scene  'Jt  ihe  opera  is  laid  w  th 

Century.     Henry  I.  of  Germany.  "''^ 
come  thither  to  raise  an  army  ♦ 
who   are   on   tV««   eve   of  an 
stirred    to    its    depths    by    the 
daughter  of  the  late  Duke,  white 

her  younger  brother,   Godfrey,  h  m 

the  soverc^nty  for  herself.     '^-'  -'^ 


m-m 


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LOHENGRIN 

"  Lohengrin,"  a  grand  opera  in  three  acts,  with  words 
and  music  by  Richard  Wagner,  was  first  presented  in 
Weimar,  Aug.  28,  1850,  under  the  direction  of  Liszt.  It 
was  produced  so  frequently  during  the  next  decade,  a  period 
spent  by  Wagner  in  exile,  that  he  once  remarked,  "  I  shall 
soon  be  the  only  German  who  has  not  heard  Lohengrin." 

Its  story  is  the  blending  of  three  legends,  but  the  basic 
one  is  that  of  King  Arthur  and  the  Holy  Grail. 

CHARACTERS. 

Lohengrin. 

Frederick  of  Telramund. 

King  Henry. 

Elsa  of  Brabant. 

Ortrud. 

Saxons  and  Thuringian  nobles,  retainers,  trumpeters, 
maidens. 
The  scene  of  the  opera  is  laid  in  Antwerp  in  the  Tenth 
Century.  Henry  I.  of  Germany,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  has 
come  thither  to  raise  an  army  to  send  against  the  Huns, 
who  are  on  the  eve  of  an  invasion.  He  finds  Brabant 
stirred  to  its  depths  by  the  dreadful  news  that  Elsa, 
daughter  of  the  late  Duke,  while  strolling  in  the  wood  with 
her  younger  brother,  Godfrey,  has  murdered  him  to  gain 
the  sovereignty  for  herself.     Telramund,  guardian  of  Elsa 


242  OPERAS 

and  Godfrey,  has  previously  been  rejected  by  the  maiden 
and  is  now  the  husband  of  Ortrud,  daughter  of  the  Prince 
of  Friesland.  Upon  this  marriage,  Telramund  bases  his 
claim  to  the  dukedom. 

The  curtain  rises  upon  a  meadow  scene  upon  the  banks 
of  the  River  Scheldt,  where  King  Henry  is  seated  under  the 
Oak  of  Justice,  surrounded  by  his  army  and  his  nobles. 
Telramund  retells  the  story  to  the  king  and  voices  his  belief 
that  Elsa  has  committed  the  unnatural  deed  to  bestow  the 
dukedom  upon  an  unworthy  lover.  Thereupon,  the  king 
orders  that  she  shall  be  brought  before  him  at  once,  to  con- 
firm by  trial  her  guilt  or  innocence. 

When  she  comes,  the  sweetness  and  guilessness  of  her 
aspect  win  her  instant  favor,  yet  when  the  king  questions 
her  she  can  only  exclaim,  "My  poor  brother!"  Finally 
breaking  her  silence  as  if  bidden  by  some  unseen  power,  she 
sings  in  terms  of  wondrous  beauty  of  a  splendid  knight  who 
will  be  sent  from  heaven  to  be  her  champion.  The  people 
are  so  impressed  by  her  words  and  demeanor  that  they 
refuse  to  believe  her  guilty  and  the  chagrined  Telramund 
declares  it  is  his  right  to  settle  the  matter  by  personal 
encounter  if  any  champion  will  appear  for  Elsa.  Accord- 
ingly, the  trumpets  are  blown  and  the  herald  cries,  "  Who 
will  do  battle  here  on  life  or  death  for  Elsa  of  Brabant 
let  him  appear !  " 

Twice  does  the  herald  make  the  cry  and  there  is  no 
response.  In  her  suspense,  Elsa  drops  to  her  knees  in 
prayer  but  as  the  trumpets  sound  for  a  third  time,  the 
people  see  approaching  a  gleaming  boat  drawn  by  a  white 
swan  and  in  it  standing  a  beautiful  knight,  clad  in  silver 
armor.  As  the  stranger  bids  his  swan  farewell,  Elsa 
recognizes  in  him,  Lohengrin,  the  knight  of  her  dreams. 
He  offers  to  appear  for  her  on  condition  that,  if  he  is  suc- 
cessful, she  will  grant  him  her  hand  but  that  she  never  will 
question  him  as  to  his  name  or  origin  nor  seek  in  any  way 
to  discover  them.  To  both  of  these  conditions  she  gladly 
agrees. 


LOHENGRIN  243 

The  struggle  is  of  short  duration,  for  the  strength 
and  dexterity  of  Lohengrin  seem  more  than  natural  and 
Telramund  is  felled  at  one  blow,  amid  the  rejoicing  of  the 
people  whose  hearts  are  not  with  him.  The  Swan  Knight 
spares  his  life,  however,  and  the  Saxon  youths  lift  Elsa 
and  her  victor  on  their  shields. 

Night  has  fallen  when  the  curtain  rises  again.  We 
see  Telramund  and  Ortrud,  shorn  of  their  honors,  sitting 
upon  the  Minster  steps  and  plotting  revenge.  Telramund 
is  inclined  to  give  up,  but  Ortrud,  like  another  Lady  Mac- 
beth, declares  herself  unconquered.  She  tells  him  that  the 
contest  was  won  with  magic  arts  and  that  if  Elsa  may  be 
induced  to  disobey  Lohengrin's  injunctions  concerning  the 
questioning  as  to  his  name  and  origin,  both  the  strange 
Knight  and  Elsa  will  be  at  their  mercy.  While  they  engage 
in  this  discussion,  Elsa  appears  on  her  balcony,  transfigured 
with  happiness,  and  sings  of  her  love  to  the  evening 
breezes.  Ortrud  accosts  her  with  pretended  humility  and 
the  gentle  Elsa,  too  willing  to  forgive,  hastens  down  and 
promises  to  intercede  with  the  King  in  her  behalf.  The 
real  object  of  the  interview  has  been  accomplished,  for 
Ortrud  casually  but  dextrously  has  succeeded  in  planting  in 
the  girl's  mind  the  seeds  of  doubt  in  regard  to  her  bride- 
groom. 

When  the  day  dawns,  the  heralds  announce  the  mar- 
riage of  Elsa  and  the  Swan  Knight.  The  nobility 
assembles  at  the  Minster  Gate  and  the  bridal  procession 
begins  to  issue  from  the  castle.  At  the  church  door 
Ortrud,  richly  attired  and  no  longer  wrapped  in  humility, 
pushes  aside  the  bride,  claiming  precedence  over  one  who 
does  not  know  even  the  name  and  rank  of  her  bridegroom. 
The  King  and  his  attendants  and  the  Swan  Knight  approach 
from  the  palace  but  scarcely  has  Lohengrin  soothed  the 
agitation  of  his  bride,  when  Telramund  appears  upon  the 
steps  and  openly  accuses  him  of  sorcery.  All  refuse 
credence  to  the  charge,  however,  and  the  procession  passes 
into  the  church. 


244  OPERAS 

The  third  act  takes  place  on  the  evening  of  the  same 
day.  Lohengrin  and  his  bride,  accompanied  by  her  ladies, 
are  conducted  to  the  bridal  chamber  to  the  strains  of  the 
Bridal  Chorus,  The  attendants  depart  and  Elsa  and 
Lohengrin  are  for  the  first  time  by  themselves.  But  the 
doubts  sown  by  the  wicked  Ortrud  have  been  growing  and 
at  last  overcome  the  present  joy.  No  longer  able  to  resist, 
Elsa  gently  chides  her  lord  for  failing  in  confidence  in  her 
and  enforces  with  caresses  her  pleas  for  knowledge  of  him. 
He  tries  to  lead  her  thoughts  to  other  things  but  her 
foolish  heart  is  full  of  the  fear  that  the  swan  boat  will 
come  and  bear  him  away  as  suddenly  as  it  brought  him  to 
her.  Finally  she  fancies  she  hears  it  coming,  and,  as  her 
apprehension  grows  to  frenzy,  she  puts  the  fatal  question, 
"Who  art  thou?" 

Before  the  sorrowing  Lohengrin  can  frame  an  answer, 
Telramund  and  his  assassins  force  their  way  into  the  room 
to  take  his  life  but  the  Swan  Knight  seizes  his  sword  and 
kills  Telramund  with  a  single  thrust. 

The  last  scene  takes  place  on  the  banks  of  the  Scheldt, 
where  the  King  and  his  men  are  again  assembled  and  where 
the  corpse  of  Telramund  is  brought.  Hither  comes  Lohen- 
grin with  the  pale  and  drooping  Elsa  and  before  the 
assembly  he  answers  the  forbidden  question.  He  has  no 
need  to  blush  for  his  lineage,  for  he  is  no  other  than  the 
son  of  Parsifal,  the  keeper  of  the  Holy  Grail,  sent  from 
Montsalvat  to  defend  the  oppressed.  It  has  been  sacredly 
decreed  that  he  may  remain  on  earth  only  on  condition  that 
his  identity  be  kept  unknown. 

As  he  is  speaking,  the  swan  bark  appears  and,  bidding 
a  last  farewell  to  the  sorrowing  Elsa,  Lohengrin  turns  to  the 
river  amid  the  lamentations  of  the  people.  Only  Ortrud 
enjoys  the  moment.  Now  she  taunts  Elsa  with  her  lack  of 
faith  and  confesses  that  the  swan  is  Godfrey  enchanted  by 
her  magic  arts.  As  he  hears  this,  Lohengrin  kneels  in 
prayer  upon  the  river's  bank  and  the  white  doves  of  the 
Grail  are  seen  hovering  over  his  head.     He  perceives  them 


LOHENGRIN  245 

and,  rising  to  his  feet,  loosens  the  golden  chain  which  binds 
the  swan  to  the  skiff.  The  bird  dives  into  the  water  and 
in  its  place  rises  a  young  knight  clad  in  silver  armor.  It  is 
Godfrey,  and  Elsa  is  soon  clasped  in  the  embrace  of  her 
brother.  Loheigrin  is  borne  swiftly  away  in  his  boat 
drawn  now  by  the  doves,  and  as  he  vanishes  over  the  waters 
of  the  Scheldt,   Elsa  sinks  lifeless  to  the  ground. 

"  Lohengrin,"  with  "  Tannhauser,"  enjoys  the  greatest 
popular  favor  of  all  the  Wagner  operas.  It  was  received 
with  public  approval  even  when  first  presented  and  proved 
a  potent  factor  in  ultimately  bringing  success  to  the  Wagner 
movement  in  Germany.  It  was  "  Lohengrin "  which  first 
interested  and  so  wonderfully  impressed  Ludwig  of  Bavaria, 
that  there  was  aroused  in  him  the  admiration  which  led  to 
his  proffer  to  the  composer  of  a  haven  at  his  court. 
"  Lohengrin  "  is  difficult  to  surpass  in  romantic  and  poetic 
beauty  and,  while  dealing  with  the  mythical,  is  much  easier 
of  comprehension  than  either  "  The  Ring  of  the  Nibelungs  " 
or  "  Parsifal,"  owing  largely  to  the  philosophical  element 
being  absent. 

Among  admired  portions  of  the  score  are  the  won- 
drously  beautiful  prelude,  which  pictures  in  tones  the 
appearance  of  the  Holy  Grail  in  a  sky  of  unclouded  blue,  its 
descent  to  earth,  and  its  return  to  its  heavenly  resting  place; 
Elsa's  description  of  her  vision  of  Lohengrin,  "  Einsam  in 
triiben  Tagen "  ("Lonely  in  days  of  sadness");  Lohen- 
grin's farewell  to  the  swan,  "  Nun  sei  gedankt,  mein  lieber 
Schwan "  ("Now  fare  thee  well,  beloved  swan");  Elsa's 
song  from  the  balcony,  "  Euch  Liiften,  die  mein  Klagen  " 
("  Ye  breezes,  which  so  often  ")  ;  the  bridal  chorus  of  Elsa's 
maidens,  used  as  a  processional  at  numberless  weddings, 
"Treulich  gefiihret  ziehet  dahin  "  ("Faithful  and  true"); 
the  love  duet  following  and  Lohengrin's  farewell  on  the 
banks  of  the  Scheldt. 


CRISPING 

"Crispino  e  la  Comare "  or  "The  Cobbler  and  the 
Fairy,"  a  comic  opera  in  three  acts  with  music  composed 
by  the  brothers  Luigi  and  Federico  Ricci  and  text  by 
Francesco  Maria  Piave  was  produced  in  Venice  in  1850. 

CHARACTERS. 

Crispino  Tachetto,  a  cobbler. 

Fabrizio,  a  doctor. 

Mirabolino,  a  doctor  and  apothecary. 

Contino  del  Fioro,  a  Tuscan  nobleman. 

Don  Astrubale  di  Caparotta,  a  Sicilian  miser. 

Bortilo,  a  mason. 

Anneta,  Crispino's  wife. 

La  Comare,  a  fairy. 

Chorus  of  doctors  of  medicine,  apothecaries,  assistants 

and  other  shopmen,  street  criers  and  news  venders, 

relatives  and  friends  of  Crispino. 

The  scene  of  the  story  is  Venice  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century.  Crispino  is  a  penniless  cobbler  and  Anneta,  his 
wife,  tries  to  add  to  the  support  of  the  numerous  family  by 
singing  ballads  in  the  street.  But  nobody  wants  any  cob- 
bling done  and  songs  are  a  drug  on  the  market.  The  sit- 
uation is  truly  desperate  when  old  Don  Astrubale  becomes 
importunate  about  the  rent  and  suggests  to  the  horrified 
Crispino  that  the  favors  of  the  pretty  wife  might  be  an 
alternative.     The  unhappy  fellow  is  about  to  end  his  troubles 


248  OPERAS 

by  drowning  himself  in  a  well,  when  out  of  its  depths 
appears  a  fairy,  who  bids  him  do  nothing  rash.  When  she 
has  heard  his  dreary  recountal  of  adversities  she  gives  him 
a  bag  of  gold  and  tells  him  that  she  can  bring  his  troubles 
to  a  termination  by  making  him  a  renowned  doctor.  The 
fairy  has  evidently  a  sense  of  humor  of  her  own,  for  when 
Crispino,  who  cannot  even  read,  demurs,  exclaiming,  "  I'm 
a  perfect  idiot,"  she  returns,  "  Thoud'st  only  resemble  a 
hundred  others  in  the  same  predicament."  She  instructs 
him  that  when  he  has  a  patient  he  must  be  careful  to  look 
around  to  see  that  she  is  not  present,  invisible  to  all  save 
him,  for  the  patient  will  not  recover  unless  she  is  absent. 
To  conclude  the  first  act,  Crispino  runs  home  to  tell  his 
wife,  who  can  scarcely  believe  her  ears.  They  find  further 
that  the  thoughtful  fairy  has  already  provided  a  large 
placard  and  a  complete  professional  wardrobe. 

Before  the  second  act  is  finished  Crispino  is  launched 
successfully  upon  his  career.  The  people  scoff  when  they 
see  his  newly  erected  sign  and  the  members  of  the  medical 
fraternity  laugh  at  his  bad  Latin,  but  when  Bortilo,  a 
mason,  is  brought  in  apparently  dying  from  a  fall,  Crispino 
looks  about  him  hastily  and,  not  discovering  the  fairy, 
prescribes  for  the  injured  man  so  effectually  that  he  recovers 
at  once  and  Crispino's  fortunes  are  made.  The  people  place 
him  upon  his  cobbler's  bench  and  carry  him  aloft  in 
triumph,  while  the  medical  fraternity  are  very  evidently 
disgruntled. 

Crispino  is  not,  alas,  one  of  the  few  who  can  bear 
prosperity  gracefully.  He  builds  a  beautiful  palace  on  the 
site  of  his  old  stall  and  here  his  wife  dwells  but  not  at  all 
happily,  for  he  is  niggardly  and  ill-treats  her.  He  is  dis- 
solute in  life,  haughty  and  supercilious  to  everybody  and 
insolent  even  to  his  good  fairy.  Naturally,  La  Comare 
decides  to  punish  him  and,  in  the  midst  of  an  interview, 
she  suddenly  sinks  with  him  through  the  earth  to  her  sub- 
terranean abode  where  Truth  and  Judgment,  two  cold  and 
uncomfortable    creatures,    dwell.      The    fairy    shows    him 


j> 


CRISPING  249 

numerous  flames  burning  in  crystal  vases  which  are  the 
registers  of  life.  Crispin©  is  alarmed  to  find  that,  while 
his  wife's  burns  high,  his  is  nearly  extinguished.  La 
Comare  tells  him  his  time  is  nigh  and,  having  assumed  the 
grinning  mask  of  death,  has  him  make  his  will  under  her 
supervision.  When  he  begs  abjectly  for  one  last  hour  with 
his  wife  and  children,  she  shows  him  in  a  magic  mirror  a 
vision  of  them  praying  for  his  safety.  Then  the  mirror 
grows  dim  and  Crispino,  who  thinks  he  is  dying,  falls 
senseless.  He  wakes  to  find  himself  in  his  own  armchair 
in  the  midst  of  family  and  friends,  who  assure  him  that  he 
has  been  the  victim  of  a  bad  dream.  The  dream,  however, 
has  had  a  beneficial  effect  and  the  curtain  descends  on  Cris- 
pino protesting  his  reformation.  The  sub-plot,  which 
concerns  itself  with  the  love  affair  of  Contino  del  Fioro 
and  the  ward  of  Don  Astrubale,  the  miser  who  wants  to 
marry  her  in  order  to  keep  her  bank  account,  is  frequently 
omitted.  It  may  be  added  that  the  opportune  taking-off  of 
this  unpleasant  person  removes  all  obstacles  to  the  lovers' 
happiness. 

Crispino  has  withstood  the  test  of  time  better  than  any 
other  of  the  many  operas  composed  singly  or  in  collabora- 
tion by  the  brothers  Luigi  and  Federico  Ricci. 

The  music  is  gay  and  sparkling  and  includes  the 
following  numbers :  Contino's  romanza,  "  Beautiful  e'en 
as  an  angel  fair ;  "  Crispino's  melody,  "  Once  a  cobbler  poor 
and  lonely ;  "  Anneta's  song,  "  My  pretty  tales,  my  charms 
and  songs,  oh  who  will  come  and  buy  ?  "  the  buffa  aria  of 
Dr.  Fabrizio,  "I'm  a  bit  of  a  philosopher;"  the  duet  of 
Crispino  and  Anneta,  "  'Tis  well !  I  now  can  understand ;  " 
Anneta's  song,  **  I  no  longer  am  Anneta ; "  her  cake 
(Fretola)  song,  "  Pietro,  darling,  this  cake  so  tempting;" 
and  her  waltz  song  in  the  finale,  "There's  no  joy  that  e'er 
hath  equaled.'* 


RK 

"Rigoletto,"   an   opci  wvV    \.\ 

Giuseppe   Verdi   and   te> 

Hugo's  <V  ENRICO  CARUSO, 

*  As  the  Duke  in  Rigoletto. 

The  greatest  of  living  tenors,  was  born  in  Naples, 
of  a  peasant  family,  in  1874.  He  is  one  of  a  family 
of  twenty-four  children  and  as  a  child  sang  on  the 
streets  of  his  native  town.  Has  received  very  little 
instruction.  America  first  heard  Caruso  in  1904,  when 
his  singing  created  a  furore.  Since  then  he  has 
appeared  here  every  year.  His  greatest  roles  are  the 
Duke  in  Rigoletto,  Rudolph  in  La  Boheme,  Edgar  in 
Lu'gikrdi  Lammermoor  and  Faust.    The   Duke  t«   a  youth 

whose  del  knows  no 

maid  or   .  safe  from 

gain  in  d  sness  from 

He  is  valtia^iy  aided  an' 

by   RigoletL-      the   court 

the   beginnirtg  of  the   o; 

successes  th"  seduction  o 

the    daughter    of    Count      ^ 

swear    vengeance.    Count    hi 

into  tlie  presence  of  the   !    ;<  -'"■ 


HEoq  B  to 


jiiomiBai 


RIGOLETTO 

"Rigoletto,"  an  opera  in  three  acts  with  music  by 
Giuseppe  Verdi  and  text  by  Piave,  adapted  from  Victor 
Hugo's  drama  "  Le  Roi  s' Amuse,"  was  first  produced  in 
Venice,  March  11,  1851. 

CHARACTERS. 

Rigoletto,  a  hunchback,  jester  to  the  Duke. 
The  Duke  of  Mantua,  a  roue. 
Gilda,  daughter  of  Rigoletto. 
Sparafucile,  a  hired  assassin. 
Maddalena,  his  sister. 
Count  Monterone. 
Count  Ceprano. 
Courtiers,  pages,  servants. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Mantua.  The  Duke  is  a  youth 
whose  debauchery  knows  no  bounds  and  no  woman,  be  she 
maid  or  wife,  is  safe  from  his  wicked  machinations,  which 
gain  in  dangerousness  from  his  personal  beauty  and  bravery. 
He  is  valuably  aided  and  abetted  in  his  campaign  of  vice 
by  Rigoletto,  the  court  buffoon.  These  wretches  are,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  opera,  counting  among  their  latest 
successes  the  seduction  of  the  wife  of  Count  Ceprano  and 
the  daughter  of  Count  Monterone.  Both  injured  men 
swear  vengeance,  Count  Monterone  forcing  an  entrance 
into  the  presence  of  the  Duke  and  demanding  reparation 


252  OPERAS 

for  the  dishonor  brought  upon  his  house.  The  heartless 
jester  mimics  the  voice  of  his  master  and  scorns  and  insults 
the  old  noble,  who,  for  his  expressions  of  indignation,  is 
seized  and  conveyed  to  prison.  He  goes  but  not  before 
he  has  hurled  at  the  hunchback  a  dread  imprecation.  The 
incident  of  the  curse  greatly  disturbs  the  calm  of  the  jester 
but  does  not  deter  him  in  his  villainies. 

The  courtiers,  disgusted  with  Rigoletto's  conduct, 
devise  a  clever  punishment.  They  resolve  to  secure  for  the 
Duke,  Gilda,  whom  they  suppose  to  be  Rigoletto's  mistress 
but  who  is,  in  reality,  his  daughter  and  the  apple  of  his  eye. 
He  shields  her  so  carefully  from  the  world  that  her  exist- 
ence is  barely  known.  However,  the  Duke,  keen  to  discover 
a  new  beauty,  has  found  her  out  and  gained  her  love, 
pretending  to  be  a  poor  student  named  Gualtier  Malde.  The 
Duke  and  his  supporters  make  believe  that  they  are  planning 
to  abduct  Ceprano's  wife  and  the  unsuspecting  Rigoletto 
assists  in  the  plot  to  convey  Gilda  to  the  Duke's  apartment. 
When  Rigoletto  discovers  that  he  has  been  duped,  he  is  so 
enraged  that  he  secures  the  services  of  Sparafucile,  a  hired 
assassin,  and  plans  to  have  the  Duke  killed.  The  Duke  is 
lured  to  the  assassin's  house  by  the  beauty  of  Maddalena. 
who  like  all  women  is  charmed  with  the  handsome  noble, 
and  pleads  with  her  brother  to  spare  his  life.  At  first 
Sparafucile  refuses  but  finally  compromises  by  agreeing  to 
kill  in  his  place  the  first  person  who  comes  to  the  house. 
Gilda,  disguised  by  her  father  in  masculine  attire  to  aid  in 
her  escape  to  Verona,  is  first  brought  to  the  house  to  spy 
upon  her  lover's  unfaithfulness  and  be  cured  of  her  infatu- 
ation. Overhearing  the  conversation  in  Sparafucile's  house 
and  learning  of  the  plot  to  kill  the  Duke,  who  is  sleeping 
there,  she  rushes  in  to  warn  him  but  as  she  opens  the  door 
she  receives  the  assassin's  dagger.  Rigoletto  following  has 
given  to  him  by  Sparafucile  a  body  in  a  sack.  He  is  about 
to  cast  it  into  the  river,  when  he  hears  the  Duke  pass  by 
with  a  song  on  his  lips.  Hastily  opening  the  sack,  he  is 
crazed  to   discover  the  body   of   his   own   daughter.      She 


RIGOLETTO  253 

dies  in  his  arms  and  her  father  sinks  to  the  ground  over- 
come by  horror.     Monterone's  curse  has  been  accompHshed. 

"  Rigoletto  "  is  esteemed  to  be  one  of  the  finest  of  the 
Verdi  operas  and  this  despite  its  horrible  and  improbable 
plot  and  its  array  of  despicable  characters. 

Among  the  important  numbers  in  the  brilliantly  melo- 
dious score  are,  in  Act  I,  the  Duke's  aria,  boasting  of  his 
inconstancy,  "  Questa  o  quella  "  ("  This  one  or  that  one  ")  ; 
Rigoletto's  soliloquy,  after  his  interview  with  the  assassin, 
"  Pari  siamo  "  ("  Similar  are  we  ")  ;  and  in  Act  II,  the  duet 
for  Gilda  and  the  Duke,  "Addio "  ("Farewell")  and 
Gilda's  florid  love  song,  "  Caro  nome  "  ("Dearest  name"), 
and  in  Act  III  occur  the  Duke's  graceful  aria,  "  La  donna  e 
mobile"  ("To  change  is  a  woman's  way")  and  that  mas- 
terpiece of  the  opera  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  perfect 
ensembles  to  be  found  in  the  entire  range  of  opera,  the 
quartet  for  Rigoletto,  Gilda,  the  Duke  and  Maddalena, 
"  Lovely  Maiden,  to  thy  charms." 


IL  TROVATORE 

"  II  Trovatore  "  or  "  The  Troubadour,"  a  grand  opera 
in  four  acts,  with  words  by  Salvatore  Cammanaro  and 
music  by  Giuseppe  Verdi,  was  first  produced  in  Rome,  Jan. 
19,  1853.  It  had  a  later  English  production  under  the  title 
"The  Gypsy's  Vengeance."  The  storjr  was  suggested  by  a 
Spanish  drama  of  the  same  name. 

CHARACTERS. 

The  Count  di  Luna. 

Ferrando,  in  his  service. 

The  Duchess  Leonora. 

Inez,  in  her  service. 

Azucena,  a  grypsy- 

Manrico,  the  Troubadour,  her  reputed  son. 

Muiz,  in  his  service. 

Followers  of  the  count,  guards,  nuns,  gypsies. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Italy.  The  action  begins  in  the 
palace  of  La  AHaferia  and  the  necessary  explanation  is 
furnished  by  the  old  servitor,  Ferrando,  who  is  regaling 
the  servants  with  midnight  tales.  He  tells  the  story  of  the 
Count  di  Luna's  brother,  Garzia,  who,  when  in  his  cradle, 
was  bewitched  by  an  old  gypsy  and  pined  away  almost  to 
death.  The  father  of  Luna  and  Garzia  punished  the  male- 
factor for  her  sorcery  by  burning  her  at  the  stake  and  in 
revenge  her  daughter  Azucena  stole  the  child  and  *  doomed 
him  to  a  fate  which  had  never  been  discovered. 


256  OPERAS 

When  Ferrando's  unpleasant  tale  is  finished,  the  scene 
changes  to  Leonora's  garden  and  the  Count  appears  and 
sings  beneath  the  windows  of  her  whom  he  loves.  The  girl 
runs  into  the  garden  to  welcome  the  singer,  thinking  that  it 
is  Manrico,  the  troubadour  and  supposed  son  of  Azucena, 
whose  enchanting  voice  and  valiant  bearing  in  the  tourna- 
ment have  completely  won  her  heart.  In  the  darkness,  she 
gives  the  Count  the  warm  greeting  which  is  intended  for 
Manrico,  who  arrives  just  in  time  to  witness  the  scene  and 
who  in  grief  and  anger,  charges  Leonora  with  infidelity. 
She  sees  her  mistake  and  rushes  impulsively  to  the  trouba- 
dour, who  is  challenged  by  the  other.  An  encounter  follows 
and  Manrico,  when  it  is  in  his  power  to  kill  his  enemy, 
hesitates  and  is  himself  dangerously  wounded.  Leonora, 
grief-stricken,  is  spared  the  sight,  for  she  falls  in  a  swoon, 
and  is  borne  insensible  from  the  garden.  Afterward,  the 
despairing  countess  hears  that  Manrico  has  been  killed,  and 
arranges  to  enter  a  convent. 

Meantime  the  wounded  troubadour  is  faithfully  nursed 
to  health  in  the  gypsy  camp  by  Azucena.  In  a  moment  of 
remorse  and  tenderness,  the  woman  confesses  to  him  that 
he  is  not  her  son  and  that  when  her  mother  was  burned, 
she  stole  the  Count's  child  with  the  intention  of  sacrificing 
it  in  the  flames  of  the  pyre  but  that  in  her  frenzy  she  threw 
her  own  child  to  death  instead.  Manrico's  emotion  at  these 
words  is  so  great  that  in  terror  she  retracts  them.  A 
messenger  comes  to  summon  Manrico  back  to  military  duty 
and  from  him  the  lover  learns  that  Leonora  will  take  the 
veil  that  very  evening.  He  rescues  her,  however,  just 
before  she  has  taken  the  vows.  Count  Luna,  arriving  at 
the  same  time  and  for  the  same  purpose,  is  further  enraged 
by  his  rival's  success. 

Azucena  is  arrested  as  a  sorceress  and  a  spy  in  the 
camp  of  the  Count.  She  calls  upon  Manrico  for  help  but 
the  sound  of  the  hated  name  only  intensifies  the  anger  of 
Luna  against  her  and  he  sentences  her  to  the  awful  fate  of 
her    mother.     Manrico,    for    his    attempted    assistance,    is 


IL  TROVATORE  257 

seized  and  thrown  into  prison  to  die  by  the  axe.  Leonora 
offers  her  hand  to  the  Count  if  he  will  release  the  prisoners 
and  her  terms  are  accepted.  She  flies  to  the  dungeon  to 
announce  his  deliverance  to  Manrico  but  first  takes  poison 
to  escape  her  part  of  the  compact.  Manrico  refuses  to  be 
freed  on  such  terms  and,  after  a  pathetic  love  scene,  she 
falls  dead  at  her  lover's  feet.  The  thwarted  Count  orders 
Manrico  away  to  immediate  execution  and  drags  Azucena 
to  the  window  to  look  upon  her  son's  slaughter.  Then  the 
gypsy  reveals  her  secret  and  the  Count  learns  that  his 
murdered  rival  is  his  own  brother.  > 

"11  Trovatore"  gained  immediate  success  and  has 
retained  it  undimmed  for  over  fifty  years.  It  may  be  men- 
tioned without  hesitation  in  the  list  of  a  dozen  operas  which 
hold  the  boards  securely.  It  is  of  all  Verdi's  work  most 
firmly  enshrined  in  the  public  heart. 

The  most  popular  number  of  the  opera  is  the 
"Miserere,"  "Ah  che  la  Morte,"  ("Ah!  how  release  of 
death"),  sung  by  Manrico.  Other  notable  passages  are 
Leonora's  song  to  the  night,  "Tacea  la  notte  placida" 
("The  night  so  calmly  dreaming") ;  the  trio  for  Leonora. 
Manrico  and  Luna,  with  which  the  first  act  closes;  the  anvil 
chorus,  in  the  camp  of  the  gypsies;  Azucena's  impassioned 
solo  descriptive  of  her  mother's  awful  fate,  "Stride  la 
vampa"  ("Hissing  the  flames");  the  Count's  aria,  "II 
balen;"  Manrico's  "high  C"  outburst,  "Di  quella  pira" 
("From  flaming  death-pyre")  and  the  duet  for  Manrico  and 
Azucena,  "Ai  nostri  Monti"   ("Back    to    our    mountains"). 


LES  NOGES  DE  JEANNETTE 

"Les  Noces  de  Jeannette "  or  "The  Marriage  of 
Jeannette,"  a  comic  opera  in  one  act  with  music  by  Victor 
Masse  and  text  by  Barbier  and  Carre,  was  first  presented 
in  Paris  in  1853. 

CHARACTERS. 

Jean. 

Jeannette. 

Thomas. 

Petit   Pierre.     , 

It  is  said  of  a  woman  that  "  if  she  won't  she  won't,  so 
there's  an  end  on't."  But  this  is  a  case  in  which  a  man 
who  wouldn't  was  persuaded  to  change  his  mind.  "  The 
Marriage  of  Jeannette "  is  a  simple,  refreshing  story  of 
French  peasant  life.  When  we  are  introduced  to  Jean,  in 
his  own  little  cottage,  he  is  shuddering  and  exclaiming, 
"Another  word  and  I  should  have  been  a  married  man !  " 
From  the  soliloquy  of  this  rough  and  good-natured  young 
rustic,  we  gather  that  he  had  fallen  in  love  with  Jeannette 
and  had  proposed  marriage  to  her.  But  when  he  had 
assumed  his  bridegroom  clothes  and  the  pretty  bride  in  her 
white  gown  was  clinging  to  his  arm  m  the  mayor's  office 
and  the  friends  of  both  of  them  were  standing  by  laughing 
and  chaffing  them  and  a  lawyer  of  "  sacrificial  aspect "  had 
handed  him  the  marriage  contract  to  sign,  he  had  been 
suddenly  seized  with  terror  and  apprehension  and  had  taken 


260  OPERAS     ' 

to  his  heels,  leaving  the  bride  discomfited.  As  he  is  exult- 
ing over  his  continued  bachelorhood,  he  hears  a  knock  at 
the  door  and  opens  it  to  admit  Jeannette,  still  in  her  bridal 
attire.  Instead  of  falling  upon  him  to  scratch  his  eyes  out, 
as  he  half  expects  her  to  do,  she  calmly  questions  him  as  to 
his  motives  for  his  conduct  of  the  morning.  Poor  Jean 
makes  a  bad  fist  of  it  in  his  explanations,  admitting  that  he 
loves  her  and  always  did  love  her  but  that  marriage  at  close 
range  scares  him.  He  sighs  and  says  "  What's  done  can't  be 
undone,"  and  Jeannette  promptly  matches  his  proverb  with 
"All's  well  that  ends  well "  and  "  There  are  as  good  fish  in 
the  sea  ..."  which  latter  proverb  she  has  quoted  to 
her  father,  who,  in  spite  of  his  gout,  has  insisted  upon  com- 
ing to  kill  Jean  for  failing  to  keep  his  promise. 

Jeannette  is  apparently  so  indifferent  about  the  whole 
matter  that  Jean  decides  that  she  does  not  care  at  all  and 
so  goes  away  to  join  his  cronies  at  the  inn.  It  is  about 
time,  for  Jeannette's  fortitude  is  fast  giving  out  and  scarcely 
has  he  disappeared  than  she  bursts  into  tears. 

Jeannette  hears  Jean  singing  and  laughing  with  his 
friends  and  fancies  that  they  are  jeering  at  her  in  her 
humiliation.  When  he  comes  back  to  get  the  bouquet  in 
his  coat  to  give  to  Rosa,  she  loses  her  temper  for  the  first 
time  and  announces  that  some  reparation  is  due  to  her  for 
the  degradation  of  being  deserted  by  her  bridegroom.  She 
presents  the  contract  and  insists  upon  his  signing  it  in 
order  that  the  world  may  think  that  he  has  changed  his 
mind  and  that  this  time  she  has  rejected  him,  merely  a  sop 
thrown  to  pride.  But  when  she  has  secured  the  coveted 
signature,  she  decides  that  she  would  rather  have  nice,  good- 
looking  Jean  for  a  husband  than  the  sweetness  of  going 
about  with  the  proof  that  she  refused  to  marry  him.  So  she 
puts  down  her  name  also  and  makes  it  a  contract.  When 
Jean  learns  of  the  trick,  he  is  in  a  terrible  rage  and  warns 
her  that  he  will  be  such  an  ogre  of  a  husband  that  she  will 
regret  it,  and  mentions  among  her  future  delights,  working 
in  the  fields  and  eating  in  the  stable. 


LES  NOCES  DE  JEANNETTE  261 

He  begins  at  once  by  tearing  down  the  curtains  and 
breaking  the  dishes  and  furniture  and  goes  up  to  the  attic 
to  sleep  off  an  intoxication  acquired  during  his  recent  visit 
to  the  inn.  While  he  is  sleeping,  Jeannette  has  her  own 
new  furniture  brought  and  arranges  the  house  attractively. 
She  then  mends  his  torn  wedding-coat  for  him  and  prepares 
a  savory  meal.  After  a  long  time,  Jean  creeps  down  stairs, 
much  improved  in  temper  and  hears  Jeannette  singing 
tunefully  in  the  flower  garden.  When  she  enters  with  the 
salad,  looking  very  winsome  in  her  pretty  gown,  Jean  tries 
hard  to  be  gruff  but  fails  lamentably.  When  he  inquires 
why  there  is  only  one  place  laid,  she  replies  that  she  has 
eaten  in  the  stable  according  to  his  instructions.  He  makes 
her  sit  down  on  the  pretense  that  she  can  better  wait  upon 
him  in  that  fashion  and,  before  he  realizes  it,  he  has  his 
arms  around  her  and  is  neglecting  his  favorite  omelet  with 
lard  for  the  joy  of  kissing  her. 

Friend  Thomas  comes  to  remind  them  that  they  are 
not  yet  married,  as  the  contract  still  lacks  the  mayor's  sig- 
nature. Jeannette  is  nearly  overcome  by  this  dire  intelli- 
gence but  Jean  assures  her  that  there  is  no  danger  of  his 
changing  his  mind  this  time.  He  then  calls  in  all  of  the 
neighbors  to  introduce  them  to  his  wife. 

The  music  of  this  piece,  which  is  one  of  the  best  speci- 
mens of  French  opera  comique,  is  full  of  spirit  and  melody 
and  the  ingenuous  little  story  is  thoroughly  entertaining. 

Prominent  numbers  are  Jean's  song,  congratulating 
himself  on  his  escape,  "Others  may  hastily  marry;"  "From 
out  a  throng  of  lovers,"  sung  by  Jeannette;  Jean's  song,  "O 
lass  so  fair,"  and  his  sarcastic,  "Ah,  little  do  you  fancy, 
precious;"  Jeannette's  numbers,  "Fly  now,  my  needle  glanc- 
ing brightly,"  and  "Voice  that's  sweetest"  and  the  chorus 
in  the  finale,  "Ring  out  village  bells,  we're  loving." 


LA  TRAVI ATA 

"La  Traviata"  or  "The  Misguided  One,"  a  grand 
opera  in  three  acts  with  score  by  Giuseppe  Verdi  and  text  by 
Piave,  was  first  presented  in  Venice  March  6,  1853.  It  is 
founded  on  Dumas'  "  Lady  of  the  Camelias  "  but  the  period 
is  changed  to  the  time  of  Louis  XIV. 

CHARACTERS. 
Violetta  Valery,  the  lost  one. 
Flora  Bervoix,  a  friend  of  Violetta. 
Annina,  the  confidante  of  Violetta. 
Alfred  Germont,  the  lover  of  Violetta. 
Georgio  Germont,  his  father. 
Gastone,  Visconte  de  Letorieres. 
Baron  Douphol,  a  rival  of  Alfred. 
Marquis  D'Obigny. 
Doctor  Grenvil,  a  physician. 
Joseph,  the  servant  of  Violetta. 
Guests,  friends,  gypsies,  matadores,  servants. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  and  near  Paris,  the  story  following 
closely  that  of  Dumas'  play.  The  action  begins  at  the  house 
of  Violetta,  where  a  gay  entertainment  is  in  progress.  In 
the  crowd  is  a  youth,  Alfred  Germont,  who  meets  the  beau- 
tiful hostess  for  the  first  time  and  becomes  deeply 
enamored.  He  is  of  excellent  family  but  he  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  offer  her  love  of  a  character  she  has  never  known 
in   her   unfortunate   and   erring   life.     Though   she   merely 


2§4  OPERAS 

laughs  at  his  protests  at  first,  she  gradually  is  moved  by  his 
sincerity  and  returns  his  love  in  kind.  She  confesses  her 
past  to  him  in  all  its  ignominy  and  warns  him  away  but  he 
declares  his  willingness  to  accept  her  as  she  is.  She  for- 
sakes her  voluptuous  life  and  goes  with  him  to  live  quietly 
in  the  country,  near  Paris,  and  here  for  several  months  they 
enjoy  a  life  of  idyllic  happiness. 

The  second  act  affords  a  glimpse  of  their  almost 
pastoral  seclusion.  However,  the  more  practical  side  of  life 
forces  itself  upon  Violetta  when  she  realizes  that  their 
funds  are  growing  low.  She  sends  secretly  to  Paris  to  sell 
some  of  her  possessions  in  order  to  be  able  to  meet  her 
debts  and  to  continue  the  maintenance  of  their  establish- 
ment. Alfred  learns  of  this  from  Annina  and,  revolting  at 
the  idea  of  dependence  upon  Violetta's  bounty,  hastens  to 
the  city  to  recover  her  property.  During  his  absence, 
Alfred's  father  comes  and  pleads  with  Violetta,  for  the  sake 
of  the  dishonored  family,  to  release  his  son  from  the  bond- 
age he  seems  to  love  so  well.  To  make  his  arguments 
irresistible,  he  tells  her  that  Alfred's  sister  will  be  renounced 
by  the  wealthy  noble  to  whom  she  is  betrothed  unless  the 
connection  in  question  is  severed.  Violetta's  life  with  Alfred 
has  grown  to  mean  redemption  to  her  but  she  determines 
upon  the  supreme  sacrifice  and,  while  he  is  gone  she  steals 
away  broken-hearted  to  take  up  her  old  life.  The  angry 
and  grief-stricken  Alfred  gives  her  course  its  worst  interpre- 
tation and  when  in  the  third  act  he  meets  Violetta  at  a  ball 
given  by  her  friend  Flora  Bervoix,  he  insults  her  publicly 
and  flings  at  her  feet  the  money  he  just  has  won  at  the 
gaming-table.  He  is  challenged  by  Baron  Douphol,  with 
whom  she  is  living,  and  a  duel  is  fought.  Violetta,  who  is 
stricken  with  consumption,  receives  her  death-blow  with 
Alfred's  insult  and  declines  rapidly.  The  father,  touched 
by  her  suffering,  reveals  the  story  of  his  interview  with  her 
and  the  nobility  of  her  conduct  and  Alfred  hastens  to  her 
bedside  to  receive  her  dying  word  of  forgiveness. 


LA  TRAVIATA  265 

"  La  Traviata,"  which  is  now  regarded  one  of  the 
masterpieces  upon  which  Verdi  rests  his  remarkable  fame, 
was  at  first  coldly  received.  The  adverse  circumstances 
under  which  it  was  produced  had  much  to  do  with  this 
verdict,  for  the  tenor  had  a  cold,  the  barytone,  piqued 
because  he  had  a  subordinate  part,  walked  languidly  through 
it  and  the  soprano  was  far  too  much  inclined  to  embonpoint 
to  be  convincing  in  the  role  of  a  lady  dying  with  pulmonary 
trouble.  But  the  passage  of  time  brought  sweet  revenge 
and  "  La  Traviata  "  has  been  instrumental  in  making  its  com- 
poser a  favorite  of  all  opera-goers.  It  fairly  overflows  with 
exquisite  melody  and  is  of  marked  elegance  and  refinement. 

Admired  in  the  attractive  score  are  the  drinking  song 
at  the  supper  sung  by  Alfred  and  Violetta,  "  Libiamo. 
libiamo"  ("Let's  drink  to  the  beauty");  Violetta's  "Ah 
fors'  e  lui  "  ("Perchance  'tis  he"),  a  number  of  rare 
beauty  and  fine  contrast,  greatly  beloved  by  concert  as  well 
as  operatic  sopranos ;  Germont's  song  to  his  son,  "  Di  Prov- 
enza  il  mar"  ("From  Provence");  Violetta's  aria,  "Addio! 
del  Passato  "  ("Adieu  then,  thou  art  fled")  and  her  duet 
with  Alfred,  "  Parigi,  o  cara  "  ("  O  Paris,  beloved"). 


DER  BARBIER  VON  BAGDAD 

"  Der  Barbier  von  Bagdad  "  or  "  The  Barber  of  Bag- 
dad "  is  a  comic  opera  in  two  acts  with  music  and  text  by 
Peter  Cornelius.  It  was  first  presented  at  the  Court  The- 
atre,  Weimar,  in   1858. 

CHARACTERS. 
The  Caliph. 

Baba  Mustapha,  a  Cadi. 
Margiana,  his  daughter. 
Bostana,  a  kinswoman  of  the  Cadi. 
Nureddin. 

Abul  Hassan  Ali  Ebe  Bekar,  a  barber. 
Attendants  of  Nureddin,  friends  of  the  Cadi,  people  of 
Bagdad,  female  mourners,  suite  of  the  Caliph. 

The  plot  of  "The  Barber  of  Bagdad"  is  light  to  the 
point  of  the  trivial  but  so  masterly  is  the  musical  setting,  so 
rich  in  inspiration  and  fantasy  and  so  abounding  in  that 
rarest  of  qualities,  true  musical  humor,  that  the  opera  is 
classed  among  the  masterpieces.  This  is  true,  despite  the 
fact  that  it  is  but  rarely  performed  either  in  the  United 
States  or  Europe. 

When  we  are  introduced  to  our  hero  Nureddin,  he  is 
in  a  distressful  plight,  lying,  apparently  about  to  breathe 
his  last  upon  a  couch  near  to  many  medicine  bottles 
and  surrounded  by  downcast  attendants.  In  his  delirium 
Nureddin  murmurs  the  name  "  Margiana  "  and  it  looks  as 


268  OPERAS 

if  a  man  were  at  last  going  to  give  the  poet  the  lie  by  dying 
for  love. 

When  the  servants  tiptoe  away,  Nureddin  is  visited  by 
Bostana,  a  friendly  handmaid,  who  comes  to  suggest  that 
when  Margiana's  father,  the  Cadi,  has  strolled  piously 
mosqueward  at  noon,  the  lover  may  find  it  an  opportune 
time  to  call  at  his  sweetheart's  residence. 

At  this  Nureddin's  condition  improves  to  an  amazing 
degree.  He  arises  from  his  couch  and  feels  some  concern 
over  his  appearance.  Bostana  recommends  the  services  of 
her  friend  Abul  Hassan,  "  a  very  virtuoso  among  barbers." 
When  Abul  arrives,  he  proves  to  be  the  most  garrulous 
old  body  imaginable  and  interrupts  the  shaving  to  recite  his 
manifold  accomplishments.  But  Nureddin  is  in  no  mood 
to  appreciate  his  versatility  and,  at  last  becoming  quite 
desperate,  he  calls  upon  the  servants  to  interfere.  But  Abul 
Hassan  is  a  barber  indeed,  and  their  combined  efforts  fail 
to  stop  the  flow  of  his  eloquence. 

At  last  the  shaving  is  resumed  and  Nureddin  is  so 
badly  in  love  that  he  cannot  refrain  from  talking,  even  to 
the  barber,  of  the  subject  uppermost  in  his  mind.  Abul 
Hassan  is  all  sympathy  and  relates  how  his  six  brothers  died 
for  love  and  how  he,  at  ninety  years  of  age,  is  likely  to  meet 
the  same  fate.  Being  so  well  fitted  by  nature  to  appreciate 
the  situation,  he  insists  upon  accompanying  Nureddin  on 
his  call,  much  to  the  young  man's  disgust.  So  summoning 
his  attendants  again,  he  informs  them  that  the  barber  is  ill, 
and  has  him  put  to  bed,  willy-nilly. 

The  scene  of  the  second  act  is  laid  in  the  Cadi's  dwell- 
ing, where  Margiana  is  awaiting  the  noon  hour  in  a  fine 
state  of  excitement.  Just  before  he  goes  to  his  devotions, 
her  father  brings  in  a  huge  chest  full  of  gifts  from  an 
ancient  friend  in  Damascus,  whom  he  has  decided  to  make 
his  son-in-law.  When  after  the  departure  of  the  unsympa- 
thetic parent,  Nureddin  at  last  finds  himself  in  his  sweet- 
heart's presence,  he  discovers  that  the  persistent  Abul 
Hassan  has  escaped  and   followed  him,   and   is  making   a 


DER  BARBIER  VON  BAGDAD  269 

great  noise  with  his  rapturous  serenade  beneath  the  window. 
But  nothing  can  seriously  disturb  the  happiness  of  the  long- 
separated  lovers. 

The  Cadi  returns  rather  earlier  than  usual  and  proceeds 
to  bastinado  a  slave  for  breaking  a  vase.  Abul  Hassan, 
hearing  the  cries,  fancies  that  the  irate  father  is  murdering 
his  new  friend  and  raises  a  great  outcry  which  brings  a 
crowd  upon  the  scene.  Bostana  and  Margiana  hastily 
conceal  Nureddin  in  the  chest  of  the  Damascan  suitor  and 
Abul  is  summoned  to  carry  it  forth.  He  has  the  misfortune 
to  meet  the  Cadi  on  the  way  out  and  is  accused  by  him  of 
being  a  thief.  The  Caliph,  who  is  passing  by  just  then 
with  his  suite,  stops  to  learn  the  cause  of  the  disturbance 
and  orders  the  chest  opened.  Within  lies  Nureddin 
motionless  and  horror  is  general  but,  at  the  magic  sound  of 
Margiana's  name  breathed  in  his  ear  by  Abul  Hassan,  the 
young  lover  rouses  and  thus  relieves  the  Cadi  of  the  suspi- 
cion of  murder.  The  Caliph  crowns  the  love  affair  with  his 
majestic  approval,  and  so  it  comes  to  pass  that  the  too 
interested  barber  has  been,  after  all,  a  benefactor. 

The  composer,  called  by  his  associates  the  "  German 
Cherubini,"  was  a  disciple  of  Liszt,  who  greatly  admired 
him  and  the  frigid  reception  accorded  to  "  The  Barber  "  was 
the  reason  for  Liszt's  severing  his  relations  with  the  Weimar 
opera  house.  The  opera  has  since  been  revived  at  Munich 
in  1885  and  in  other  German  cities  and  was  in  the  repertory 
of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  Company  in  New  York 
during  the  seasons  of  1889-1890  and  1890-1891. 

The  Muezzin's  call,  the  scene  of  the  bastinadoing  of 
the  slave  and  AbuFs  famous  bass  solo,  with  the  chorus 
"  Salaam !  Aleikoum !  "  are  especially  fine  passages. 


ORPHEE  AUX  ENFERS 

"  Orphee  aux  Enfers"  or  "  Orpheus  in  Hades,"  an  opera 
bouffe  in  three  acts  with  text  by  Cremieux  and  music  by 
Jacques  Offenbach,  was  first  produced  at  the  Bouffes  Paris- 
iens,  Paris,  Oct.  21,  1858. 


CHARACTERS. 

Aristeus. 

Eurydice. 

Pluto. 

Diana. 

Jupiter. 

Public  Opinion. 

Orpheus. 

Juno. 

John  Styx  (Cerberus). 

Venus. 

Mercury. 

Cupid. 

Morpheus. 

Minerva. 

Bacchus. 

Gods  and  goddesses. 

Mars. 

The  opera  is  a  clever  burlesque  on  mythology,  accom- 
plished in  four  tableaux.  When  the  curtain  rises,  we  find 
Eurydice  busily  engaged  in  decorating  a  cottage,  situated 
in  the  suburbs  of  Thebes  but  it  is  not,  as  one  might  have 
every  reason  to  expect,  the  habitation  of  Orpheus.  It  is 
that  of  her  lover,  Aristeus,  who  turns  out  to  be  Pluto  in 
disguise.  Orpheus  appears  serenading  the  nymph  Maquilla 
whom  he  adores.  Thus  the  mythological  lovers  catch  each 
other  red-handed  in  their  flirtations  and  proceed  to  have  a 
serious  quarrel.  Eurydice  admits  that  she  detests  her 
spouse  and   that  she   is  thoroughly  bored   with  his  music 


272  OPERAS 

and  his  verses,  while  Orpheus  punishes  her  for  her  insolence 
by  playing  for  her  his  last  concerto.  She  meets  the  shepherd 
Aristeus  in  a  cornfield  and  while  wandering  with  him 
catches  her  foot  in  a  snare,  her  companion  thereupon  disclos- 
ing his  real  identity.  They  leave  a  note  for  Orpheus,  telling 
him  of  the  fate  which  has  overtaken  Eurydice,  day  is 
turned  into  night  and  they  disappear  into  Hades  through  a 
trap-door. 

In  the  next  scene,  Orpheus  is  visited  by  Public  Opinion, 
armed  with  torch  and  whip  and,  much  to  the  musician's 
disgust,  is  informed  that  he  must  follow  the  visitor  to 
Olympus,  there  to  claim  his  adored  wife  in  order  to  give  to 
posterity  the  example  of  at  least  one  husband  who  really 
cared  about  his  partner.  Threatened  with  the  loss  of  his 
music  class,  Orpheus  consents  to  the  distasteful  business. 

In  the  second  tableau,  the  gods  and  goddesses  on 
Olympus  are  seeking  temporary  relief  from  their  boredom 
in  a  nap.  They  are  roused  by  the  sound  of  a  hunting-horn 
which  announces  the  arrival  of  Diana.  It  develops  that  the 
affair  of  that  young  lady  with  Acteon  has  not  been  as  much 
of  a  credit  to  her  as  mythology  would  lead  us  to  believe. 

A  great  deal  of  gossip  is  circulated,  Eurydice's  abduc- 
tion by  Pluto  being  the  latest  scandalous  theme.  It  becomes 
evident  that  Jupiter,  who  has  a  wholesome  fear  of  Public 
Opinion,  is  kept  busy  smoothing  over  things  so  that  poster- 
ity will  have  a  better  impression  of  his  uncircumspect 
family.  One  incident  is  a  revolt  of  the  gods  led  by  Cupid, 
all  protesting  that  they  are  sick  of  nectar  and  ambrosia  and 
want  different  fare.  When  Jupiter  tries  to  quiet  the  dis- 
turbance, they  mock  his  virtuous  air,  warning  him  that  they 
know  a  lot  of  things  about  him,  and  proposing  to  recite  the 
list.  He  pleads  a  business  engagement  but  is  detained 
perforce,  and  has  several  escapades  recalled  unpleasantly  to 
mind.  An  interruption  is  afforded  by  Mercury's  announce- 
ment of  the  approach  of  Orpheus  and  Public  Opinion  and 
the  deities  are  ordered  to  behave  and  to  arrange  themselves 
for  the  reception  of  company.     The  two  visitors  enter  and 


ORPHfiE  AUX  ENFERS  273 

Public  Opinion  reminds  Orpheus  that  it  is  time  to  begin  his 
impassioned  plea.  This  he  manages  so  effectively  that 
Jupiter  declares  he  will  assist  in  the  restoration  and  all  the 
company  ask  to  go  along  for  diversion. 

In  Tableau  III,  Eurydice  is  seen  languishing  in  Pluto's 
drawing-room  in  Hades  closely  guarded  by  John  Styx.  As 
Pluto  has  been  rather  neglectful,  Eurydice  greets  Jupiter's 
arrival  with  pleasure.  He  is  disguised  as  a  large  fly  and 
after  affecting  coyness,  he  allows  Eurydice  to  catch  him. 
They  at  once  become  deeply  in  love  with  each  other. 

In  the  last  tableau,  Eurydice  is  found  changed  by 
Jupiter  into  a  Bacchante  and  Pluto  shows  some  evidence  of 
being  glad  to  resign  her  to  her  husband.  Jupiter,  faithful 
to  his  promise,  declares  that  Orpheus  shall  take  Eurydice 
but  only  on  condition  that  he  shall  not  look  at  her  until 
they  have  crossed  the  Styx,  for  he  reckons  on  Orpheus' 
curiosity  and  hopes  thus  to  keep  her  for  himself.  They 
have  almost  reached  the  galley  and  Orpheus,  still  fearful 
of  Public  Opinion,  has  not  looked  around,  when  the  anxious 
Jupiter  takes  matters  into  his  own  hands  and  gives  him  an 
electric  kick  which  causes  him  to  start  and  turn.  Orpheus, 
able  now  to  excuse  himself  to  Public  Opinion,  can  scarcely 
conceal  his  joy  and  the  whole  breaks  up  with  a  minuet  in 
which  Jupiter  leads  off  with  Eurydice. 

The  opera  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  one  of  the 
most  popular  of  all  the  works  of  the  bouffe  class.  It 
parodies  the  tales  of  the  Olympian  gods  as  "  La  Belle 
Helene  "  does  those  of  the  Homeric  Heroes  and  although  it 
was  intended  primarily  to  appeal  merely  to  the  amusement- 
seeking  class,  the  wealth  of  melody  in  its  musical  score  and 
the  capital  humor  in  its  libretto  have  given  it  widespread 
and  enduring  vogue. 

Charming  numbers  in  this  admirable  burlesque  opera 
are  Eurydice's  song,  "  La  femme  dont  la  coeur  reve  "  ("  The 
maiden  who  with  dreaming  heart")  ;  Aristeus'  pastoral  song, 
"Voir,  voltiger  sous  les  treilles  "  ("See  fluttering  'neath  the 
branches");  Diana's  song,  "  Quand  Diana  descend  dans  la 


274  OPERAS 

plaine"  ("When  Diana  to  the  plain  descends"),  with  its 
quaint  refrain;  Minerva's  song  relating  the  amours  of 
Jupiter;  John  Styx'  ballad,  "Quand  j'etais  roi  de  Boetie" 
("When  I  was  King")  ;  Eurydice's  fly  song,  "Bel  insecte 
a  I'aile  doree"  ("Fair  insect,  with  wing  of  gold")  and  her 
hymn  to  Bacchus. 


IL  BALLO  IN  MASGHERA 

"II  Ballo  in  Maschera"  or  "The  Masked  Ball,"  an 
opera  in  three  acts  with  music  by  Verdi  and  text  by  M. 
Somma,  was  first  produced  in  Rome  at  the  Teatro  Apollo, 
Feb.  17,  1859. 

CHARACTERS. 

Richard,  Count  of  Warwick  and  Governor  of  Boston. 

Reinhart,  secretary  to  the  governor. 

Amelia,  wife  of  Reinhart. 

Ulrica,  a  negress  astrologer. 

Oscar,  a  page. 

Sylvan,  a  sailor. 

q,  '    I  enemies  of  the  Count. 

A  judge. 
A  servant. 

Richard,  Governor  of  Boston,  is  in  love  with  Amelia, 
wife  of  his  friend  and  secretary,  Reinhart.  As  he  broods 
over  this  unhappy  state  of  affairs  he  is  approached  by  the 
loyal  Reinhart  who  warns  him  that  his  life  is  threatened 
by  conspirators,  but  he  dismisses  the  matter  with  character- 
istic lightness.  A  petition  is  brought  to  him  for  the  banish- 
ment of  Ulrica,  a  negress  who  practices  sorcery  and,  in 
order  to  give  personal  investigation  to  the  case,  he  disguises 
himself  and  visits  the  squalid  cabin  where  a  witch's  caldron 


276  OPERAS 

steams  over  a  tripod.  He  overhears  Amelia  begging  the 
witch  to  give  her  some  potion  capable  of  dispelling  the 
unlawful  love  which  fills  her  heart  and  realizes  with  mixed 
emotions  that  the  love  is  for  him.  Ulrica  recommends  an 
herb  which  grows  in  the  .gallows-field  where  criminals  are 
executed  and  informs  her  that  it  will  be  potent  only  if  she 
gathers  it  alone  and  at  night.  Richard  remains  after 
Amelia  has  crept  shudderingly  away  and  gives  Ulrica  his 
own  palm  for  the  revelation  of  its  secrets.  She  tells  him 
that  death  is  in  store  for  him  and  that  his  assassination  is 
to  be  by  the  sword  of  him  who  next  touches  his  hand  in 
apparent  friendship.  In  contempt  of  the  oracle,  he  ofifers 
his  hand  to  each  of  his  courtiers  but  all  shrink  from  it.  At 
this  moment  Reinhart  enters  and  the  Governor  grasps  his 
hand,  while  all  breathe  a  sigh  of  relief,  for  they  are  sure 
no  harm  can  ever  come  to  him  from  a  friend  as  tried  and 
true  as  his  secretary. 

The  second  act  is  played  in  the  ghastly  field  where 
Amelia  goes  to  dig  the  herb  which  shall  cure  her  of  her 
love.  Once  she  sees  a  figure  appear  in  the  uncertain  light 
of  the  moon  and  in  terror  fancies  a  ghost  is  rising  before 
her.  She  may  well  tremble,  for  it  is  Richard  who  has 
followed  her  from  the  town.  Earnestly  she  beseeches  him 
to  leave  but  he  forgets  that  he  has  come  to  protect  her  and 
entreats  her  to  acknowledge  her  love  for  him  which  she 
weakly  does.  They  are  suddenly  confronted  by  Reinhart, 
who  having  discovered  that  the  conspirators  are  on  the 
Governor's  track,  has  come  to  warn  him.  He  beseeches 
him  to  fly  but  Richard  refuses  to  go  unless  Reinhart  will 
pledge  himself  to  conduct  his  deeply  veiled  companion  to  the 
gates  without  attempting  to  discover  her  identity.  He 
promises  but  is  overtaken  by  the  conspirators,  who  think 
Reinhart  is  the  Governor.  Showing  them  their  mistake, 
he  chides  them  for  their  perfidy  and  they  insist  upon  snatch- 
ing the  veil  from  his  companion's  face.  As  he  is  about  to 
defend  her  with  his  sword  she  reveals  herself  and  his  love 
for  the  Governor  dies  a  sudden  death. 


IL  BALLO  IN  MASCHERA  277 

On  the  next  day,  Reinhart  goes  over  heart  and  soul  to 
the  conspirators,  overcoming  their  doubts  of  his  sincerity 
by  offering  his  httle  son  as  hostage.  All  wish  to  strike  the 
coveted  blow  and  it  is  finally  decided  to  leave  it  to  chance. 
Amelia  is  made  the  instrument.  She  is  asked  to  draw  a 
name  from  a  vase  and  has  the  misfortune  to  draw  her 
husband's.  It  is  planned  to  kill  the  Governor  at  the  masked 
ball  which  he  gives  that  evening  at  his  mansion.  Amelia, 
learning  of  this,  manages  to  have  a  warning  conveyed  to 
him.  With  his  usual  reckless  courage,  however,  he  appears, 
hoping  to  obtain  a  last  glimpse  of  her.  He  has  resolved  to 
send  her  back  to  England  with  her  husband,  whom  he  has 
arranged  to  commission  handsomely.  As  he  steals  a  word 
under  cover  of  their  disguises,  the  jealous  husband  rushes 
between  them  and  stabs  him.  With  his  dying  breath,  the 
Governor  attests  the  wife's  innocence  and  bids  farewell  to 
his  beloved  country. 

The  subject  of  the  opera  is  the  same  as  that  of  Auber's 
"Gustavus  III.,"  which  represents  the  assassination  of  the 
King  of  Sweden  at  a  masked  ball.  When  Verdi  began  to 
prepare  for  its  production  in  Naples,  the  police  interfered 
upon  the  ground  that  it  would  be  injudicious,  owing  to  the 
recent  attack  of  Orsini  upon  Napoleon  III.  Verdi  hotly 
refused  to  adapt  his  music  to  other  words,  but  later  the 
impresario  of  the  Teatro  Apollo  in  Rome  suggested  changes 
in  the  libretto  which  made  possible  the  production  of  the 
opera.  The  scene  was  transferred  to  Boston,  Mass.,  the 
Swedish  King  was  transformed  into  a  British  governor  and 
the  conspirators  into  Royalists  and  Puritans. 

The  score,  while  not  the  greatest  of  Verdi's  achieve- 
ments, contains  several  numbers  of  distinct  beauty.  Among 
them  kre  Richard's  song,  "  La  rivedra  nell'  estasi  "  ("I  shall 
behold  her")  ;  Reinhart's  aria,  "  Di  speranze  e  glorie  piena 
("For  thy  life"):  the  song  of  Oscar  the  page,  "  Volta  la 
terrea"  ("Fain  would  I  plead");  the  witch's  music  and 
Richard's  barcarole,  "  Di'  tu  se  fedele  "  ("Oh  tell  me"). 


278  OPERAS 

In  Act  II  occur  Amelia's  dramatic  aria,  sung  on  the 
murderer's  field,  "  Ma  dall  arido "  ("  This  is  the  dreaded 
place  ")  ;  the  love  duet  following  upon  the  arrival  of  Rich- 
ard, "  M'ami,  m'ami  "  ("Love  me!  Love  me!").  In  Act 
III  are  Amelia's  song,  "  Morro,  ma  prima  in  grazia " 
("Only  one  word  more  to  thee")  and  Reinhart's  song,  "O 
dolcezzo  perdute"  ("  O  ye  hours"). 


FAUST 

MADAME  MELBA, 

"Faust,"   a^fffand  ooera .  in^ve  acts^with  words  by 

Barbier  ^nd    Carn;   afrer   C.-jk- tne  s-    poem     ana     music    by 

Charles  Ci^nE  v%ffelt  J^r^f  .^?«attJ>e^aR^'L^e, 
.  ^™e.    Sie  adopted^  the  name  "Melba'^  in  remem- 

^tsnck  or  fhe  Australian  city.     She  sang  at  concert 
in  Melbonrne  whfiPM^^JF^ars  old.     Against  the 
wfsfi'  oTlie^r  father,  decided  to  adopt  music  as  a  pro- 
fession.    After  her  marriage  in  1882,  to  Captain  Arm- 
strong, her  determination  to  follow  a  musical  career 
strengthened.     Studied    under   Madame    Marchesi   in 
Paris,  made  her  debut  at  Brussels  in  the  role  of  Gilda 
in    Rigoletto,    with    g-reatest   success.      Renowned    in 
many  lands,  she  has  made  riumerbus  appearances  in 
'the   United'  States.      Her  favorHt   rdle«  '  afe^LMi^y- 
the   iOphelie,  Juliet  and  Marguerite?.' 'C   Goethe   drama.      Dr. 
Faust,   the   d  ca   ^i  i  .   who  has   lived  many 

years  in  the  i  of  kno\  is  introduced  to  us  as 

baffled    in    his    metaphysical    im'C^tigation,    weary    of    life, 
and  longing  to  be  released  from  it.     He  cries 

N*uf?ht  do  I  see!     Naught  .^n  T  know? 
N'augrht!     Naught! 
He  mixes  a  -'luight  of  poison  and  is  about  to  raise  it 
to  his  lips.   A'h-r\  he  hears  a  company  of  laborers  singing 
as  they  go  to  xut  Md$ 


.i'dUB'i  a'faonuoO  ni  aJiiaii^-isM  a  A 
-bM  i£3n  nioS.  .Bnhob  £rnnq  risfl^n3  auom£'5 
-mamsi  ni  "  sdbM  *'  sfpBn  sril  bsiq^bjs  ariS  .ornuod 
ii9DnoQ  iB  ^n£8  ariS  .^ib  ^tfiH^ilauA  odi  lo  ooitBid 
^Ai  izn'iB'gA  .bio  ztB9\  xia  -{Ino  narfw;  DftiuodbM  ni 
-oiq  £  e£  Dignrn*  :tqob£  oJ  babioab  ^larilal  tod  to  d<hf 
-miA  nifiiqif)  '-t  ,£881  ni  o^/.hi/un  i^d  i^tlA  .notzfesl 
i33ifio  Ijioi^.L-'iii  £  v/ollot  oi  nofiKnifmsJab  -lorl  .-gfTfiTts 
ni  iaarioifiM  9m£b£M  labnw  boibul^  .h^oQiil-^n^-iiz 
fibliO  io  tiloi  9riJ  ni  ab&^tnS  ij;  irid'^b  lorl  abfim  ,?JiB^ 
ni  banwona^I  .gaao^iie.  iaaJs^i^  riJiv/  ,oltalo§ii5  ni 
ni  29on.£i£9aqR  swoiomun  sb^ni  2£rl  9d?=  ,gbnBl  x;nBm 
jfibnJ  /£?   loH     .^9l£i8   b'jtinlT   sdt 

DJii9iJ^"?rK  f.rtr.  j^ilnT  .aibrlqO 


FAUST 

"Faust,"  a  grand  opera  in  five  acts,  with  words  by 

Barbier  and  Carre  after  Goethe's  poem  and  music  by 
Charles  Gounod,  was  first  produced  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique, 
Paris,  March  19,  1859. 

CHARACTERS. 

Marguerite 

Siebel 

Dr.  Faust 

Valentine 

Mephistopheles 

Martha 

Wagner 

Students,  soldiers,  villagers,  sorcerers. 

This  opera  of  Gounod  follows,  with  reasonable  fidelity, 
the  Faust-Marguerite  episode  in  the  Goethe  drama.  Dr. 
Faust,  the  disillusioned  old  student,  who  has  lived  many 
years  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  is  introduced  to  us  as 
baflfled  in  his  metaphysical  investigation,  weary  of  life, 
and  longing  to  be  released  from  it.     He  cries 

Naught  do  I  see!     Naught  do  I  know! 
Naught!     Naught! 

He  mixes  a  draught  of  poison  and  is  about  to  raise  it 
to  his  lips,  when  he  hears  a  company  of  laborers  singing 
as  they  go  to  the  fields 


280  OPERAS 

Praise  ye  the  Lord! 
Bless  ye   our  God! 
The  world  is  beautiful. 

"But  this  God,  what  can  he  do  for  me?"  shrieks  the 
unhappy  Faust  and  he  falls  back  into  his  chair  cursing 
wildly.  With  this  invitation,  Mephistopheles,  the  fiend, 
makes  a  spectacular  appearance,  clothed  as  a  gay  cavalier 
with  a  plume  in  his  hat  and  a  bright  cloak  over  his 
shoulder.  He  offers  to  give  Faust  youth  in  exchange  for 
his  soul.  The  student  has  known  life  only  in  theory  and 
the  appeal  is  too  strong  to  be  overcome,  while  a  vision  of 
Marguerite  at  her  spinning-wheel  nerves  his  hesitating 
hand  to  sign  the  contract. 

He  sees  the  world  in  its  new  guise  at  Easter-tide  and 
at  the  kermess  or  village  fair  he  meets  Marguerite  for  the 
first  time,  as  she  is  returning  from  church.  She  is  a  pure 
and  innocent  girl,  whose  brother,  Valentine,  a  soldier,  has 
departed  for  the  wars,  leaving  her  in  the  care  of  the  youth 
Siebel  and  of  old  dame  Martha.  Mephistopheles  encoun- 
ters Valentine  and  Siebel  at  the  fair  and,  confessing  that 
he  is  a  sorcerer,  reads  their  hands.  To  Siebel  he  says, 
"Whatever  flowers  you  would  gather  shall  wither  in  your 
grasp.  No  more  bouquets  for  Marguerite."  To  Valentine 
he  says,  "Take  care,  my  brave  fellow;  some  one  I  know 
is  destined  to  kill  you." 

Into  Marguerite's  garden,  Siebel  comes  and  leaves  a 
nosegay  at  her  window  but  Mephistopheles  soon  appears  and 
places  there  a  casket  of  jewels  to  outshine  it.  The  girl 
returns  from  church  and  sings  at  her  spinning-wheel 
the  quaint  old  folk-song  "There  was  a  king  in  Thule," 
while,  in  reality,  she  is  dreaming  of  the  handsome  Faust, 
whose  advances  she  rebuffed  in  the  market-place.  Suddenly 
she  sees  the  jewels,  and  is  delighted  with  them.  Faust  appears 
and  the  girl  confides  to  him  her  loneliness,  he  assuring 
her  eloquently  of  his  love  and  devotion.  A  strange 
doubt  fills  her  soul,  however,  but  Faust  dispels  it  with  his 
endearments.     To    prove    his    love,    she    consults    a    daisy. 


FAUST  281 

saying  as  she  pulls  out  the  petals  one  by  one,  "He  loves 
me;  he  loves  me  not."  The  flower  says  "yes"  and  Faust 
adds  his  rapturous  avowal  to  its  answer. 

She  falls  a  victim  to  Faust  and,  deserted,  she  cringes 
under  the  scorn  of  the  world.  When  Valentine  returns, 
he  challenges  his  sister's  betrayer  and  is  slain,  Mephistoph- 
eles  guiding  the  sword  in  Faust's  unwilling  hand.  The 
girl  finds  herself  alone  and  forsaken,  her  former  associates 
taunting  her  and  even  the  church  failing  to  console  her, 
for  Mephistopheles  follows  to  mock  her  even  at  the  altar. 
Finally,  her  grief  drives  her  mad  and  she  kills  her  child. 
The  prison  doors  close  on  her  and  she  waits  for  the  execu- 
tioner's axe. 

Faust,  viewing  with  Mephistopheles  the  glory  of  earth 
and  heaven,  is  drawn  from  a  visiqn  of  Helen's  triumphant 
beauty  to  contemplate  the  anguished  features  of  Marguerite 
in  the  dress  of  the  condemned.  Aided  by  Mephistopheles, 
he  seeks  her  in  prison  and  urges  her  to  fly  with  him,  but 
her  chastened  soul  relies  now  upon  heaven  alone  and  she 
refuses  to  submit  to  the  entreaties  of  the  bitterly  contrite 
Faust.  At  dawn,  as  the  bells  toll  for  her  execution,  she 
dies  and  her  soul  is  carried  to  heaven  by  angels,  before 
whose  holiness  Mephistopheles  is  powerless.  Faust  follows 
her  apotheosis  with  his  eyes  and  sinks  to  his  knees  in  prayer. 

Gounod's  "Faust"  has  had  an  universal  success.  It 
and  his  "Romeo  and  Juliet"  are  counted  his  masterpieces. 
The  former  has  been  performed  more  than  a  thousand  times 
in  Paris  alone. 

Among  the  numbers  are  the  drinking  song  of  Mephis- 
topheles, "Veau  d'or"  ("Calf  of  Gold");  the  entire 
garden  scene,  which  includes  Siebel's  "Flower  Song," 
Faust's  greeting  of  Marguerite's  dwelling,  "Salut!  demeure 
chaste  et  pure"  ("Hail,  thou  dwelling  pure  and  holy")  ;  the 
"King  of  Thule"  ballad  and  the  "Jewel  Song"  sung  by 
Marguerite  and  the  duets  of  Faust  and  Marguerite.  "Laisse- 
moi,  laisse-moi  contempler  ton  visage"  ("Let  me  gaze") 
and  "O  nuit  d'amour"   ("O  Night  of  Love").     Prominent 


282  OPERAS 

in  the  later  acts  are  the  "  Soldiers'  Chorus,"  the  ballet 
music  and  the  trio  for  Marguerite,  Faust  and  Mephistoph- 
eles  with  which  the  opera  closes. 


LURLINE 

"  Lurline,"  a  romantic  opera  in  three  acts  with  music 
by  William  Vincent  Wallace  and  words  by  Edward  Fitz- 
ball,  was  first  produced  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  London, 
Feb.  23,  1860.  Its  story  is  very  similar  to  the  famous 
legend  of  the  Lorelei. 

CHARACTERS. 

Count  Rudolph,  a  young  nobleman. 

The  Baron  Truenfels. 
Conrad. 

Zelieck,  a  gnome. 
Ghiva,  the   Baron's  daughter. 
Liba,  the  spirit  of  the  Rhine. 
Lurline,  nymph  of  the  Lurlei-Berg. 
Vassals  of  Rudolph,  attendants  of  the  Baron,  conspir- 
ators, pages,  water-spirits,  naiads,  nymphs. 

The  action  of  this  opera  takes  place  in  the  waters 
and  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  Count  Rudolph  is  an 
extravagant  young  fellow  residing  in  an  ancestral  castle. 
He  is  generous  as  well  as  extravagant  and  his  patrimony 
has  been  dissipated,  largely  by  the  graceless  followers  by 
whom  he  is  surrounded.  Like  some  other  young  spend- 
thrifts, he  hopes  to  mend  his  fortunes  by  marriage.     His 


284  OPERAS 

fiancee,  Ghiva,  is  the  pretty,  but  vain  and  mercenary  daughter 
of  a  neighboring  baron.  The  Baron  and  Rudolph  both  dis- 
cover, however,  that  they  are  ahke  in  need  of  replenishing 
each  his  income.  The  marriage  treaty  is  summarily  dis- 
solved, the  once  cordial  Baron  fairly  showing  the  young 
Count  the  door. 

Meantime,  Lurline,  the  nymph  of  the  Rhine,  has  seen 
Count  Rudolph  in  his  boat  and  has  fallen  in  love  with  him. 
At  a  revel  held  by  him  and  his  companions  at  the  castle, 
Lurline  attends  and,  surrounding  the  host  with  spells,  places 
her  magic  ring  upon  his  finger.  Upon  recovering  his 
reason  he  finds  that  he  is  in  love  with  the  bautiful  water- 
queen.  Her  enchanted  voice  and  harp  lure  him  to  the 
river  in  which  he  is  engulfed  and  in  which  he  is  supposed  to 
perish. 

The  second  act  shows  the  coral  cavern  of  the  Rhine, 
where  Lurline  makes  her  dwelling.  The  form  of  Rudolph 
is  seen  wrapt  in  sleep  which  the  father  of  Lurline  means  to 
be  eternal.  But  while  he  is  temporarily  absent,  Rudolph  is 
resuscitated.  To  his  ears  comes  the  sound  of  the  voices 
of  his  companions  singing  a  requiem  for  the  loss  of  their 
chief.  This  moves  him  so  deeply  that  he  desires  to  return 
to  them  for  a  short  time.  Lurline  consents  to  his  absence 
for  three  days  and  agrees  to  await  his  return  on  the  summit 
of  the  Lurlie-Berg  at  the  rising  of  the  moon  on  the  third 
evening.  To  augment  his  happiness,  she  prevails  on  her 
father,  the  Rhine-King,  who  has  become  reconciled  to  an 
earthly  son-in-law,  to  give  him  a  cargo  of  wealth  for  the 
fairy  boat  on  which  he  embarks.  Lurline  with  strange  dread 
watches  him  depart.  She  fears  the  nonfulfilment  of  his 
promise  to  return. 

Rudolph  at  home  again  Is  greeted  with  joy.  He  dis- 
closes to  the  Baron  and  his  daughter  the  secret  of  his 
enormous  wealth,  the  news  producing  a  remarkable  change 
in  their  manner  toward  him.  The  Baron  again  courts  an 
alliance  with  him,  and  Ghiva,  displeased  to  find  that  his 
heart  is  engaged  to  Lurline,  hopes  to  break  her   influence 


LURLINE  285 

by  stealing  the  enchanted  ring  from  his  finger  and  casting 
it  into  the  Rhine.  All  this  time  poor  Lurline  sits  discon- 
solate upon  the  Lurlei-Berg  lamenting  to  the  mournful 
tones  of  her  harp.  A  gnome  in  the  service  of  the  Rhine- 
King  confirms  her  belief  that  she  is  deserted  by  bringing  to 
her  the  ring.  Like  any  earthly  woman,  the  evidently 
scorned  nymph  finds  her  fury  aroused  and  resolves  to  visit 
her  unfaithful  lover  to  upbraid  him. 

The  castle  on  the  Rhine  is  now  the  scene  of  great 
festivity  and  among  the  revelers  the  Count  alone  is  sad, 
for  his  heart  is  away  on  the  Lurlei-Berg  with  Lurline. 
But  he  dares  not  present  himself  to  her  without  the  ring. 
When  he  is  alone  for  a  moment,  Lurline  appears  to  him 
and  demands  the  troth-token.  An  interview  takes  place, 
which  ends  in  Lurline's  denouncing  the  treachery  of  the 
companions  in  whom  he  most  confides.  They  are  envious 
of  his  wealth  and  have  plotted  to  destroy  him  and  plunder 
the  castle.  Their  plan  has  been  overheard  by  Ghiva  and 
her  father,  who  urge  him  to  instant  flight.  Even  now  the 
assassins  rush  upon  Rudolph  but  he  prefers  death  at  the 
feet  of  Lurline  to  safety  without  her.  Lurline's  affection 
returns  and,  seizing  her  harp,  by  the  spell  of  music  she 
causes  the  destruction  of  the  assassins.  The  Rhine-King 
again  appears,  to  give  Rudolph's  hand  to  his  daughter. 

The  principal  numbers  in  this  rarely  given  opera  are 
Lurline's  songs  to  the  accompaniment  of  her  harp,  "  Flow 
on,  flow  on,  O  silver  Rhine  "  and  "  When  the  night  winds 
sweep  the  wave ;  "  the  chorus,  "  Sail  on,  sail  on,  the  mid- 
night gale ; "  Rudolph's  romanza,  "  Our  barque,  in  moon- 
light beaming ;  "  the  chorus  of  gnomes  and  spirits,  "  Ven- 
geance, Vengeance ;  "  the  "  Behold !  Behold !  wedges  of 
gold,"  sung  by  the  gnome  at  the  commencement  of  the 
second  act ;  Lurline's  song  with  Liba  and  the  chorus,  "  Take 
this  cup  of  sparkling  wine;"  "Troubadour  enchanting," 
for  the  contralto;  Rudolph's  ballad,  beginning  the  third 
act,  "  My  home !  My  heart's  first  home ; "  Lurline's  "  Great 
Spirit!  hear  my  prayer,"  the  one  number  of  the  opera  which 


286  OPERAS 

found  universal  popularity  and  which  is  still  sung  occasion- 
ally ;  the  incantation,  "  Wild  waters,  from  your  fountains 
rise  "  and  the  final  chorus,  "  Flow  on,  thou  lovely  Rhine." 


THE  LILY  OF  KILLARNEY 

"  The  Lily  of  Killarney,"  presented  on  the  continent 
as  "  The  Rose  of  Erin,"  is  a  light  opera  in  three  acts,  the 
musical  setting, by  Sir  Julius  Benedict.  The  story  is  taken 
by  Oxenford  from  Dion  Boucicault's  Irish  drama,  "  Colleen 
Bawn."  The  work  was  produced  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre,  London,  Feb.  8,  1862.  The  characters  are  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  and  the  scene  is  laid  in  Killarney, 
Ireland. 

CHARACTERS. 

Eily  O'Connor,  the  Lily  of  Killarney. 

Mrs.  Cregan,  mistress  of  the  hall  at  Tore  Cregan. 

Hardress  Cregan,  her  son. 

Anna  Chute,  an  heiress. 

Father  Tom,  a  priest. 

Danny  Mann,  Hardress'  boatman. 

Myles  na  Coppaleen,  a  lover  of  Eily. 

Corrigan,  an  Irish  middleman. 

O'Moore. 

Sheelah. 

Dennis. 
Hardress  Cregan,  son  of  Mrs.  Cregan  of  the  Hall,  is 
the  not  wholly  blameless  hero  of  "  The  Lily  of  Killarney." 
The  Cregan  estate  is  heavily  mortgaged  and  foreclosure  is 
threatening,  when  Corrigan,  the  middleman,  calls  on  Mrs. 
Cregan  and  suggests  the  marriage  of  her  son  with  the  rich 


288  OPERAS 

Anna  Chute  as  a  solution  of  their  difficulties.  In  the  event 
of  failing  in  this,  Corrigan  suggests,  as  an  alternative,  Mrs. 
Cregan's  marriage  with  himself.  The  idea  is  disdained 
and  Corrigan,  in  retaliation,  proves  to  Mrs.  Cregan  that 
Hardress  is  being  taken  by  his  henchman,  Danny  Mann,  to 
see  Eily,  the  Colleen  Bawn  or  Lily  of  Killarney,  a  peasant 
girl  for  whom  he  is  known  to  have  inclinations.  Eily  has 
another  lover,  Myles  na  Coppaleen.  Corrigan  informs  him 
that  the  Lily  and  Hardress  have  been  clandestinely  married. 
Father  Tom  tries  to  bring  about  a  public  announcement  of 
the  marriage  and  Hardress  labors  just  as  strenuously  for 
the  Lily's  surrender  of  the  "  marriage  lines  "  or  certificate 
but  this  the  priest  and  her  former  lover  prevent.  Corrigan 
continues  to  bring  pressure  to  bear  in  the  mortgage  matter 
and  Hardress  reluctantly  pays  his  suit  to  Anna,  meantime 
suffering  genuine  remorse  over  his  treatment  of  Colleen 
Bawn,  The  daredevil  Danny  Mann  volunteers  to  get  the 
girl  out  of  the  way;  Hardress  falters  at  an  evil  deed  but  is 
desperate,  and  finally  agrees  that  if  he  shall  send  his  glove 
to  Danny  it  is  to  be  a  signal  for  her  disappearance.  Danny 
at  once  tells  Mrs.  Cregan  that  if  she  can  induce  her  son  to 
send  him  his  glove,  it  in  some  way  will  mend  the  fortunes 
of  the  unhappy  family.  Ready  to  catch  at  a  straw  and 
ignorant  of  its  import,  Mrs.  Cregan  sends  the  desired 
article  on  her  own  account.  Danny  takes  it  to  Colleen 
Bawn,  tells  her  that  her  husband  has  sent  for  her  and  that 
she  is  to  come  in  his  boat.  He  rows  her  to  a  cave,  demands 
the  marriage  certificate  again  and,  when  she  refuses,  pushes 
her  into  the  water.  Myles,  who  happens  to  be  near,  shoots 
Danny  and  saves  the  girl.  Eventually,  Hardress  is  arrested 
for  murder  but  is  cleared  by  Danny's  deathbed  confession. 
Hardress'  marriage  with  Anna  Chute  is  prevented  and  he 
recognizes  the  Lily  of  Killarney  as  his  lawful  wife. 

Benedict's  "  Brides  of  Venice "  and  "  The  Gypsy's 
Warning  "  have  been  forgotten  but  "  The  Lily  of  Killarney  " 
still  has  occasional  performance.  The  score  is  elaborate 
for  light  opera  but  is  interspersed  with  Irish  melodies  which 


THE  LILY  OF  KILLARNEY  289 

lend  it  distinctive  character  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
charm  of  naturalness  and  simpHcity.  Among  the  numbers 
are  Hardress'  song  "A  Bachelor's  Life ; "  the  serenade  "  The 
Moon  has  raised  her  lamp  above ;  "  the  old  Irish  melody, 
"  The  Cruisheen  Lawn  "  ("  Little  Jug  ")  ;  the  duet  of  Anna 
Chute  and  Hardress,  "  The  eye  of  love  is  keen ; "  Danny 
Mann's  song,  "  Colleen  Bawn ; "  Myles'  lullaby,  "  Your 
slumbers,  och  soft  as  your  glance  may  be ; "  the  trio  of  Eily, 
Myles  and  Father  Tom,  "  Blessing  on  that  Rev'rend  Head  " 
and  Hardress'  ballad  "  Eily  Mavourneen,  I  see  thee  before 
me." 


LES  TROYENS  A  CARTHAGE 

"Les  Troyens  a  Carthage"  or  "The  Trojans  at 
Carthage,"  an  opera  in  five  acts  and  a  prologue  with  words 
and  music  by  Hector  Berlioz  was  produced  in  Paris,  Nov. 
4,  1863.  It  forms  the  second  part  of  the  lyric  poem  **  Les 
Troyens"    ("The  Trojans"). 

CHARACTERS. 

y^neas,  a  Trojan  hero,  son  of  Venus  and  Anchises. 

Narbal,  minister  to  Dido. 

Pantheas,  Trojan  priest,  friend  of  .S^neas. 

lopas,  Tyrian  poet  at  the  court  of  Dido. 

Hylas,  a  young  Phrygian  sailor. 

Two  Trojan  soldiers. 

Dido,  Queen  of  Carthage,  widow  of  Sicheus,  formerly 

prince  of  Tyre. 
Anna,  sister  of  Dido. 
Ascagnus  ,young  son  of  .lEneas. 
A   rhapsodist. 
Mercury. 
Spectres    of    Priam,    of    Chorebus,    of     Cassandra,     of 

Hector. 
Chorus    of    Tyrians,    Trojans,    Carthaginians,    nymphs, 

satyrs,  fauns  and  sylvans. 

Upon  the  rising  of  the  curtain  on  the  prologue,  Troy 
is  seen  in  flames  and  a  rhapsodist  appears  to  recite  his  story 
to  an  orchestral  lament.     He  tells  how  after  ten  years'  futile 


292  OPERAS 

siege  of  Troy,  the  Greeks  by  trickery  entered  the  city  in  the 
Wooden  Horse,  which  they  pretended  was  an  offering  for 
the  appeasing  of  the  offended  Pallas  Athene.  He  adds  that 
this  was  done  in  spite  of  the  warnings  of  Cassandra,  who 
ultimately  found  all  her  forebodings  correct  and  who,  with 
the  other  Trojan  women,  killed  herself. 

The  first  act  is  played  in  a  vast  hall  in  the  palace  of 
Dido  at  Carthage.  A  fete  is  being  celebrated.  The  fair 
Queen  thanks  the  people  for  establishing  a  prosperous  and 
substantial  young  empire  in  the  seven  years  since  they  fled 
with  her  from  Tyre  from  the  tyrant  Pygmalion,  her  hus- 
band's murderer.  Great  in  peace,  she  asks  them  to  show 
themselves  a  race  of  heroes  in  war  and  to  defend  her  from 
an  odious  marriage  with  Hiarbas,  the  Numidian.  The 
adoring  people  gladly  promise  their  protection. 

The  next  scene  reveals  the  Queen's  apartment.  Here 
her  sister  Anna,  observing  the  Dido's  depression,  counsels 
her  to  remarry  instead  of  living  so  constantly  with  the 
memory  of  her  dead  spouse.  As  they  talk,  lopas  comes  to 
announce  the  arrival  of  deputies  from  a  strange  fleet  in 
quest  of  an  asylum. 

Dido,  taught  compassion  by  her  own  past,  willingly 
grants  them  an  audience.  Among  the  strangers  is  ^neas, 
the  Trojan,  who  is  destined  to  be  the  founder  of  the  Roman 
empire.  He  is  in  the  guise  of  a  sailor  and  is  accompanied 
by  his  young  son.  During  the  presentation  of  gifts  to  the 
Queen,  news  is  brought  that  the  insulted  Hiarbas  has  arrived 
with  a  great  army  and,  when  the  Carthaginians  express 
their  fear  that  they  will  fall  in  the  unequal  contest,  ^neas 
throws  off  his  disguise  and  offers  to  supplement  their  army 
with  his  forces.  Leaving  his  son  in  Dido's  care,  he  goes 
to  marshal  his  hosts. 

Between  the  first  and  second  acts,  the  spectacle  of  a 
royal  chase  is  depicted.  The  hunters  appear  and,  as  the 
trumpets  sound  a  fanfare,  glimpses  are  caught  of  frightened 
naiads  hiding  in  the  reeds.  The  sky  is  obscured  and  the 
rain  falls  with  rapidly  increasing   force.     In  the  lightning 


LES  TROYENS  A  CARTHAGE  293 

flashes  are  discerned  ^neas  and  Dido  garbed  as  Diana, 
the  huntress.  They  seek  shelter  in  a  grotto.  Wood-nymphs 
gHde  from  the  pinnacles  of  high  rocks  and  satyrs,  sylvans 
and  fauns  perform  a  grotesque  dance.  Occasionally,  in 
the  midst  of  the  clamor  of  the  tempest  is  heard  the  word 
"  Italy."  Finally,  all  disappear  into  the  depths  of  the 
forest  and  the  tempest  dies  away. 

The  second  act  is  played  at  sunset  in  the  garden  of 
Dido  at  the  edge  of  the  sea.  The  Queen  and  her  court, 
together  with  ^neas  and  the  boy  Ascagnus,  watch  the 
splendid  dance  performed  by  Numidian  slaves,  the  Queen 
indifferently,  it  is  true.  A  growing  love  is  undermining 
her  faithfulness  to  her  dead  husband.  At  last  she  waves 
away  even  her  favorite,  the  poet  lopas,  who  at  her  bidding 
has  sung  to  her.  Then  she  asks  ^neas,  who  reposes  at 
her  side,  to  tell  her  of  the  fate  of  the  lovely  Andromache, 
widow  of  Hector,  ^neas  relates  that,  reduced  to  slavery 
by  Pyrrhus,  she  implored  death  but  finally  was  induced  by 
the  obstinate  love  of  the  prince  to  espouse  him  instead. 
Dido,  fearing  herself,  shrinks  from  the  knowledge  of  this 
precedent,  lest  she  may  be  weak  enough  to  do  likewise. 
She  is  unconscious  that  as  they  converse,  the  boy  Ascagnus 
toying  with  her  fingers  draws  off  her  wedding-ring.  The 
Trojan  hero  and  the  enamored  Queen  stroll  into  the  gardens 
where  in  the  light  of  the  moon  they  acknowledge  their 
love.  Mercury,  appearing  suddenly  in  the  moonlight,  strikes 
with  his  wand  Eneas'  shield  which  hangs  upon  a  column 
and  solemnly  repeats  the  word.   "  Italy,  Italy,  Italy." 

In  the  third  act,  is  seen  the  shore  of  the  sea,  covered 
with  Trojan  tents  and,  afar  off,  Trojan  ships  lying  at 
anchor.  The  young  sailor  Hylas  ponders  upon  the  uncer- 
tainty of  a  soldier's  fate;  the  priests  take  counsel  among 
themselves  and  voices  of  invisible  spirits  are  heard  uttering 
cries  of  "  Italy."  ^neas,  perturbed,  arrives  in  camp, 
fresh  from  a  heartrending  interview  with  Dido  in  which 
he  has  told  her  that  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  leave  Carthage. 
He  describes  vividly  her  anguish  and  irreconciliation.     To 


294  OPERAS 

banish  the  memory  of  the  fixed  eyes  and  deathHke  pallor 
of  the  Queen,  the  spirits  of  the  dead  heroes  come  to  remind 
him  of  his  duty,  which  is  to  conquer  and  found  a  natioa 
They  warn  him  against  delay. 

In  the  fourth  act,  Dido's  sorrow  and  love  prove 
stronger  than  the  desire  for  revenge  for  her  betrayed  faith. 
To  those  who  surround  her  intimately,  she  confides  that  she 
means  to  put  an  end  to  her  unbearable  existence. 

In  the  fifth  act,  the  curtain  rises  to  disclose  a  funeral- 
pyre  raised  in  the  gardens  of  Dido.  Accompanied  by  the 
songs  of  the  priests  and  the  lamentations  of  the  people, 
the  Queen  mounts  the  steps  and  casts  upon  the  pyre  the 
toga  of  ^neas.  Dowered  with  the  prophetic  gift  of  those 
about  to  die,  she  foretells  that  her  memory  will  go  down  the 
ages,  that  her  people  will  accomplish  their  heroic  designs 
and  that  from  her  ashes  will  spring  a  splendid  avenger. 
Then  falling  upon  the  sword  of  ^neas  and  with  the  word 
"  Rome "  upon  her  lips,  the  Queen  of  Carthage  dies.  A 
vision  of  Rome  is  seen  in  the  sky,  with  legions  surrounding 
the  capitol  and  poets  and  artists  at  the  feet  of  an  emperor. 
At  this,  the  people  of  Carthage  utter  the  heralding  cry  of 
the  Punic  wars  which  shall  be  waged  between  the  Romans 
and  the  Carthaginians. 

This  is  the  second  and  more  familiar  part  of  Berlioz's 
double  opera  "  Les  Troyens,"  which  follows  the  plot  of 
Virgil's  ^neid.  Associated  with  this  romantic  story  is 
some  of  the  finest  music  written  by  Berlioz.  Remarkable 
are  the  songs  of  Dido  in  the  first  act  and  the  orchestral 
scene  of  the  royal  hunt  and  the  storm;  in  the  second  act, 
the  ballet  music ;  the  quintet  "  Tout  n'est  que  paix  et 
charme  "  ("All  is  but  peace");  the  love  duet  of  Dido  and 
.^neas,  "  O  nuit  d'ivresse  et  d'extase  infinie "  ("  O  night 
of  ecstacy");  in  the  third  act,  the  revery  of  the  young 
sailor  Hylas;  Eneas'  lament  "Ah!  quand  viendra  I'instant 
des  supremes  adieux  "  ("Ah!  when  shall  come  the  moment 
of  farewell"),  and  the  scene  of  the  death  of  Dido  in  the 
fourth  act." 


LA  BELLE  HELENE 

"La  Belle  Helene "  or  "The  Fair  Helen"  is  an 
opera  bouffe  in  three  acts,  the  music  by  Jacques  Offenbach 
and  the  words  by  Henry  de  Meilhac  and  Ludovic  Halevy. 
It  was  first  presented  at  the  Theatre  des  Varietes,  Paris, 
Dec.   17,   1864. 

CHARACTERS. 

Paris,  son  of  King  Priam. 

Menelaus,  King  of  Sparta. 

Agamemnon,   King  of  Greece. 

Calchas,  Grand  Augur  of  Jupiter. 

Achilles,  King  of  Phiotis. 

Ajax  the  First,  King  of  Salamine. 

Ajax  the  Second,  King  of  Locria. 

Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon. 

Helen,  Queen  of  Sparta. 

Bacchis,  an  attendant  of  Helen. 

Parthenis,     )  *  ^     •  ^i. 

T  >  women  of  Conntn. 

Leoena,         j 

Philocomes,  a  servant  of  Calchas. 

Euthecles,  a  blacksmith. 

Guards,  slaves,  the  populace. 

The  affair  is  based  upon  the  Homeric  legend  of  Helen 
of  Troy  and  refers  to  the  decision  of  Paris  and  to  other 
classical   incidents,   the  scene  being  laid  in   Sparta  and   on 


296  OPERAS 

the  seashore.  The  curtain  rises  on  the  public  square,  back 
of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter,  to  which  deity  the  people  are 
paying  homage.  Stray  references  to  cheese,  butchers'  bills 
and  the  Cytheran  Tribune  may  be  heard.  Just  as  Philoc- 
omes  arrives  with  the  thunder,  which,  at  Calchas'  bidding, 
he  hangs  upon  a  nail,  Helen  appears  with  a  chorus  and  she 
and  Calchas  try  to  devise  a  way  of  escaping  the  decree  of 
the  oracle,  which  has  it  that  she  must  leave  her  husband 
Menelaus  and  fly  to  Troy  with  Paris  "  a  nice  young  man," 
whom  Venus  declares  to  have  wonderful  taste  and  to 
whom  she  has  promised  the  fairest  woman  under  the 
heavens.  Paris  arrives,  disguised  as  a  shepherd,  and  Helen 
is  at  once  struck  with  his  beauty,  while  he  is  equally  pleased 
with  the  lady  Venus  has  provided  for  him.  He  says:  "A 
charming  face!  Let  us  see  the  profile.  Splendid,  too! 
The  three-quarters  now  turn.  How  naif!  She  has  every 
quality.  Now  turn  three-quarters  this  side.  Raise  your 
head  a  little,  don't  open  your  mouth.  Splendid !  "  They 
are  devoted  lovers  in  no  time. 

There  follows  a  grand  tournament  to  which  everyone 
comes.  All  the  dignitaries,  the  A j  axes,  Achilles,  Menelaus 
and  all  the  kings  guess  at  charades.  Paris  wins  the  first 
prize.  This  draws  attention  to  him  and  in  his  pride  he 
declares  his  identity.  "  Heavens,"  cries  Helen,  in  agitation, 
"  the  apple  man !  "  The  accommodating  oracle  puts  in  an 
order  for  Menelaus  to  sail  without  delay  for  Crete  and  Paris 
is  left  in  possession  of  the  field.  He  secures  an  interview 
with  Helen  and  tries  to  induce  her  to  accompany  him.  He 
even  craftily  suggests  some  doubt  that  she  is  the  most 
beautiful  woman  in  the  world. 

"And  who  else  could  it  be  ? "  inquires  the  indignant 
Helen,  "  Not  Parthenia  who  paints,  nor  stiff  Penelope,  nor 
my  sister  Clytemnestra  with  her  nose !  " 

Paris  departs  unsuccessful.  The  kings  engage  in  a 
gambling  match  and  later,  the  Queen  retires  to  dream  of 
Paris,  who,  meanwhile,  enters  her  apartment  as  a  slave. 
Their   interview   is   interrupted  by   the   return   of   Menelaus 


LA  BELLE  HfiLfiNE  297 

with  his.  valise  and  umbrella.  Helen  scolds  him  for  not 
announcing  his  coming.  Later,  the  couple  have  a  quarrel 
about  the  incident  and  the  King  calls  Helen  false,  demand- 
ing that  the  grand  augur  of  Venus  be  sent  to  him.  Calchas 
informs  him  that  a  new  augur  has  been  appointed  and  is  on 
his  way.  This,  as  usual,  turns  out  to  be  Paris  in  disguise. 
He  demands  that  Helen  come  with  him  and  sacrifice  one 
hundred  white  heifers  to  Venus,  who  is  vexed  about  many 
things.  Reluctantly,  she  obeys  the  voice  of  destiny  and  gets 
on  board  the  galley,  leaving  her  spouse  in  rage. 

"  La  Belle  Helene "  is  an  excellent  example  of  its 
class,  the  opera  bouffe.  It  is  purposely  and  ridiculously 
inconsistent;  its  anachronisms  are  appalling;  the  gods  and 
heroes  of  mythical  Greece  and  the  Age  of  Fable  wear 
modern  clothes  and  give  expression  to  modern  sentiments. 
It  shows  a  peculiar  sense  of  humor  and  is  an  admirable 
piece  of  buffoonery,  if  one  can  blink  at  the  fact  that  the 
dialogue  occasionally  borders  on  the  vulgar. 

Among  the  tuneful  numbers,  and  they  are  truly  tuneful, 
are  Helen's  song,  "Amours  Divins  "  ("The  loves  divine;") 
the  judgment  of  Paris,  "Au  Mont  Ida "  ("  On  Mount 
Ida;")  Helen's  "  Le  roi  plaintif "  ("The  plaintiff  king") 
and  "  On  me  nomme  Helene  la  blonde "  ("I  am  called 
Helen  the  fair;")  the  March  of  the  Goose;  the  duet 
between  Helen  and  Paris,  "Oui!  C'est  un  reve  "  ("Yes,  'tis 
a  dream;")  Helen's  couplets,  "  Un  Mar  Sage"  ("A  hus- 
band wise");  Orestes'  "Venus  au  Fond!"  Paris'  song, 
"  Sachez  le  bien  "  ("  Know  but  the  good  ")  and  the  patri- 
otic trio  in  the  last  act,  "  Lorsque  la  Grece  est  un  camp  de 
carnage"  ("When  all  of  Greece  is  a  field  of  carnage") 
sung  by  Agamemmon,  Calchas  and  Menelaus,  which  is  a 
parody  of  the  famous  trio  in  "  William  Tell." 


L'AFRICAINE 

"  L'Africaine "  or  "  The  African,"  a  grand  opera  in 
five  acts,  the  last  of  Giacomo  Meyerbeer's  works,  was  first 
produced  at  the  Academic,  Paris,  April  28,  1865.  Scribe 
had  written  the  text  in  1840,  at  the  same  time  as  that  of 
"  The  Phophet,"  but  so  many  changes  were  demanded  by  the 
composer,  that,  at  one  time,  he  withdrew  his  work  alto- 
gether. Meyerbeer  was  still  correcting  and  improving  "  The 
African"  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

CHARACTERS. 

Inez,  daughter  of  Don  Diego. 

Anna,  her  attendant. 

Vasco  di  Gama,  an  explorer,  lover  of  Inez. 

Selika,  an  African  queen,  captured  by  Vasco. 

Nelusko,  her  fellow  captive. 

Don  Pedro,  President  of  the  Council. 

Don  Diego,    a    Portuguese    admiral,     member    of    the 

Council. 
Don  Alvar,  a  member  of  the  Council. 
Grand  Priest  of  Brahma. 
Members  of  the  Inquisition,  sailors,  Indians,  attendant 

ladies. 

The  scene  of  the  opera  is  laid  in  Portugal  and  in 
Africa.  As  was  frequently  the  case  with  Meyerbeer,  he 
takes  for  his  operatic  hero  an  actual  historical  figure.  On 
this  occasion,  it  is  Vasco  di  Gama,  the  Portuguese  navigator, 


300  OPERAS 

who  has  been  sent  with  Dias  to  double  the  cape  and  repeat 
the  glory  of  Columbus,  The  story  opens  in  Lisbon.  Donna 
Inez  is  sighing  for  Vasco,  her  lover,  whose  long  absence 
has  given  rise,  in  court,  to  the  fear  that  he  has  suffered 
death  by  shipwreck.  Meantime,  her  father  is  bringing 
pressure  to  bear  on  her  to  gain  her  acceptance  of  the  hand 
of  Don  Pedro. 

The  report  of  the  shipwreck  is  confirmed  and  Inez  is 
giving  way  to  her  grief  when  Vasco,  the  only  survivor  of 
the  ill-fated  fleet,  appears  to  dissipate  the  rumor.  He 
has  picked  up  on  his  voyage  a  man  and  a  woman,  inhab- 
itants of  one  of  the  strange  lands  where  he  has  touched. 
They  refuse  to  aid  in  his  campaign  of  discovery,  however, 
jealously  guarding  even  the  name  of  their  island.  The 
councillors  exhibit  grave  doubts  as  to  the  truth  of  Vasco's 
claims  of  discovery  and  also  are  suspicious  of  him,  as  one 
who  would  urge  the  existence  of  lands  not  mentioned  in  the 
Bible.  Vasco,  who  does  not  help  his  cause  by  the  violent 
rage  into  which  he  flies,  is  thrust  into  the  prison  of  the 
Inquisition  as  a  heretic  and  Selika  and  Neluska,  the  cap- 
tives, are  obliged  to  share  his  fate.  They  are  incarcerated 
for  a  month  and  in  that  time  Selika  loses  her  heart  to  Vasco. 
Nelusko  is  jealous  and  looks  for  an  opportunity  to  stab  his 
supplanter  in  the  dusky  beauty's  affections.  She  faithfully 
guards  Vasco  and  finally  points  out  to  him  on  his  map  the 
course  he  should  have  taken  for  his  desired  discovery.  To 
add  to  his  happiness,  Inez  secures  his  deliverance  from 
imprisonment.  But  his  joy  is  not  without  alloy  for  he  finds 
that  to  gain  this  she  has  been  forced  to  give  her  hand  to 
Don  Pedro,  who  has  confiscated  Vasco's  maps  and  sailing 
funds  and  is  about  to  snatch  the  laurels  of  discovery  from  him. 

Vasco  presents  the  captives  to  Inez  as  a  token  of  his 
unhappy  love  and  Don  Pedro  resolves  to  make  use  of  them 
on  his  voyage.  Nelusko,  with  hatred  in  his  heart,  sees 
his  opportunity  and  plans  to  wreck  the  ship  on  a  reef. 
Vasco,  following  in  a  smaller  vessel,  sees  the  danger  and 
for  the  sake  of  Inez  tries  to  warn  his  rival  but  when  he 


V  AFRICAINE  301 

boards  Don  Pedro's  ship,  the  latter  distrusts  him,  and, 
having  him  seized,  orders  him  shot.  Before  his  sentence 
is  carried  out,  however,  a  typhoon  arises  and  the  vessel  is 
driven  on  a  rock  and  boarded  by  savages.  It  is  Selika's 
own  island  of  Madagascar  and  she,  its  Queen,  is  rescued  by 
her  people.  Don  Pedro  and  most  of  the  crew  are  killed 
but  Inez  escapes  immediate  death,  while  Selika,  to  save 
Vasco,  declares  herself  his  spouse.  The  barbaric  nuptial 
rites  are  about  to  unite  them,  when  Vasco  hears  the  voice 
of  Inez  in  the  distance,  bewailing  her  fate  as  she  and  her 
attendants  are  led  to  the  sacrifice.  Forgetting  everything 
else,  he  flies  to  her.  Selika  realizes  then  that  she  never  can 
gain  Vasco's  love  and  nobly  aids  them  to  return  to  their 
own  country.  As  they  sail  away  in  the  distance,  she  lies 
down  under  the  manchineel  tree  and  kills  herself  by  inhaling 
the  perfume  of  its  deadly  blossoms,  Nelusko  taking  her  in 
his  arms  and  sharing  her  fate. 

"  The  African "  reveals  all  of  Meyerbeer's  musical 
virtues  and  shortcomings.  It  is  filled  with  theatrically 
effective  situations,  many  of  its  melodies  being  of  distinct 
beauty  and  at  times  of  true  nobility.  The  brchestration  is 
often  attractive,  but  there  is  absent,  in  both  text  and  setting, 
any  deep,  genuine  feeling.  There  are  also  many  absurdities 
and  discrepancies  in  both  plot  and  characters. 

Among  the  best  numbers  in  the  score  are  the  romanza 
of  Inez,  "Adieu,  mon  doux  rivage  "  ("Farewell,  ye  shores 
of  Tagus  fair ") ;  the  strongly  dramatic  ensemble  with 
which  the  first  act  closes;  the  slumber-song  of  Selika,  sung 
over  Vasco  in  prison,  "  Sur  mes  genoux,  fils  du  soleil " 
("Lulled  in  my  arms");  the  invocation  of  Nelusko  in  the 
third  or  Ship  act,  "Adamastor,  roi  des  vagues  profondes  " 
("Adamastor,  monarch  of  the  pathless  deep");  the  Indian 
march  in  the  fourth  act;  Vasco's  finest  aria,  the  celebrated 
"  O  Paradiso  "  ("  O  Paradise  ")  and  the  symphonic  prelude 
to  the  last  or  "  Manchineel "  act,  which,  portentous  as  it  is 
of  coming  tragedy,  has  the  attributes  of  a  funeral  march 
and  is  the  best  of  all  of  Meyerbeer's  orchestral  creations. 


TRIF 

JEAN  DE  RESZKE, 

As  Tristan  in  Tristan  and  Isolde. 

opera       ^he  elder  of  the  two  De  Reszke  brothers,  famous 

^      Polish  singers.     Until  the  advent  of  Caruso,  Jean  de 

^l       Reszke  was  said  to  have  the  most  phenomenal  tenor 

voice  of  any  living  singer.     His  career  has  been  long 

and  successful  although  his  voice  failed  him  once.   He 
w 
,        was  born  in  1852  at  Varsovie,  Poland,  and  sang  many 

,        baritone   roles   before   his  voice   was   found  to  be  a 

j^      tenor. 

,•  His  greatest  successes  have  been  made  in  Othello, 

the  Duke  in  Rigoletto  and  Tristan.     He  is  now  the 

,^^ director   of   singing  at   the    Paris   Opera  and   has   a 

i^h  ',jSchool  in  Paris  where  he  trains  promising  singers. 

pull!.       He  has  amassed  a  fortune,  through  his  voice. 

T; 

and  hr 


If 

Sfl 

11    9cl   (yi    I  :■:■■■"    - ,     --■;-  '    V 


TRISTAN  UND  ISOLDE 

"  Tristan  und  Isolde "  or  "  Tristan  and  Isolde,"  "  an 
opera  in  three  acts"  with  words  and  music  by  Richard 
Wagner,  was  first  presented  in  Munich,  June  10,  1865.  In 
1857,  Wagner  interrupted  his  work  on  the  "  Ring  of  the 
Nibelungs "  to  write  "  Tristan  und  Isolde "  which  was 
designed  to  renew  his  association  with  the  stage.  Influence 
was  brought  to  bear  in  his  behalf  but  failed  to  secure  for 
him  permission  to  return  to  (jermany  to  supervise  the  per- 
formance of  the  new  work.  It  was  not  until  six  years 
later  that  it  was  given  a  satisfactory  production,  under  the 
direction  of  Hans  von  Bulow. 

The  plot  is  derived  from  an  old  Celtic  poem  of  the 
same  name,  written  by  Gottfried  of  Strasburg,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  Thirteenth  Century,  though  Wagner  has 
changed  the  narrative  sufficiently  to  make  it  his  own. 
Tristan  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  legendary  heroes 
and  has  been  treated  of  by  numerous  writers,  among  them 
Tennyson,  Matthew  Arnold  and  Swinburne. 

CHARACTERS. 

Tristan,  a  Cornish  Knight. 
Marke,  King  of  Cornwall. 
Isolde,  an   Irish   Princess. 
Kurvenal,  Tristan's  servant. 
Melot,  a  jealous  friend  of  Tristan. 


304  OPERAS 

Brangaene,  attendant  of  Isolde. 

A  shepherd,  steersman,  sailors,  knights  and  esquires. 

Isolde  is  the  beautiful  daughter  of  the  King  of  Ireland. 
Her  hand  is  sought  in  marriage  by  Marke,  King  of  Corn- 
wall. Unfortunately,  as  it  proves,  the  royal  bridegroom 
sends  his  favorite  nephew,  Tristan,  to  bring  the  Princess  to 
England.  Previous  to  the  opening  of  the  drama,  Morold, 
a  kinsman  of  Isolde,  has  been  sent  to  Cornwall  to  collect 
tribute  money  and  for  certain  acts  of  insolence  has  been 
slain  by  Tristan.  With  somewhat  ghastly  irony,  the 
Cornish  knight  sends  the  head  instead  of  the  tribute  to 
Ireland  and  this  memento  is  piously  preserved  by  Isolde, 
who  promises  to  avenge  the  murder.  The  conqueror,  how- 
ever, has  not  escaped  unscathed.  He  is  badly  wounded  and, 
knowing  Isolde's  skill  as  a  healer,  he  lands  upon  the  shore 
of  Ireland  and  she  nurses  him  back  to  health  and 
strength.  Recognizing  the  necessity  of  keeping  his  identity 
a  secret,  he  presents  himself  as  Tantris,  a  minstrel,  and  all 
goes  well  until  Isolde  discovers  that  a  splinter  of  steel 
found  in  the  head  of  Morold,  fits  a  large  nick  in  her 
patient's  sword.  Her  first  impulse  is  to  take  her  revenge 
but  she  finds  that  the  sword  she  would  lift  against  Tristan 
is  swayed  by  love.  She  allows  him  to  depart  without 
injury.  King  Marke,  aged  and  without  an  heir,  is  urged 
to  take  a  wife  and,  finally  consenting,  he  sues  for  Isolde's 
hand  and  sends  his  nephew  to  conduct  her  to  England. 

The  drama  opens  on  the  deck  of  the  vessel  which  has 
on  board  the  unwilling  bride  and  her  unhappy  guide,  for 
though  he  has  not  confessed  it,  Tristan  has  given  his  heart 
to  his  whilom  nurse  and  she  is  deeply  incensed  that  he 
should  countenance  her  marriage  to  another.  Meanwhile, 
Tristan  stands  apart  with  averted  face  and  even  at  Isolde's 
demand  for  an  interview,  courteously  refuses  to  speak  with 
her.  The  Princess  broods  over  her  griefs  and  the  result 
of  her  gloomy  meditations  is  a  decision  to  take  her  own  life. 
Accordingly,  she  bids  her  attendant  Brangaene  prepare  a 
deadly  draught  and  calls  Tristan  to  share  it  with  her.     This 


TRISTAN   AND   ISOLDE  305 

he  gladly  consents  to  do,  though  suspecting  its  nature,  for 
he  prefers  death  to  life  without  her.  Brangaene,  however, 
has  substituted  a  love-potion  and,  as  the  two  gaze  into  each 
other's  eyes  waiting  to  see  the  glaze  of  death  appear,  they 
see  instead  the  glow  of  love  which  grows  into  a  boundless 
passion.  As  the  shouts  of  the  sailors  announce  the  landing, 
they  throw  themselves  into  each  other's  arms. 

The  second  act  finds  Isolde  in  Cornwall,  wedded  to 
her  aged  lord  but  engrossed  in  thoughts  of  Tristan.  The 
King  and  his  attendants  have  gone  to  the  hunt,  leaving  the 
women  behind.  Night  has  fallen  and  a  torch  flares  at  the 
palace  door  a  signal  for  the  watching  lover.  Brangaene 
stands  on  the  steps,  a  reluctant  sentinel  and  a  conscience- 
smitten  one,  for  she  begins  to  fear  the  consequences  of  the 
potion  administered  by  her  hands.  Even  more  does  she 
fear  the  treachery  of  Melot,  professedly  Tristan's  friend.  In 
spite  of  Brangaene's  warning,  Isolde  impulsively  extin- 
guishes the  torch  and  runs  forward  into  the  garden  to  meet 
the  waiting  Tristan.  They  engage  in  the  most  rapturous 
of  love  duets  and  rejoice  that,  instead  of  dying,  they  have 
lived  for  such  inexpressible  joy.  No  heed  whatever  do  they 
pay  to  Brangaene's  cry  from  the  battlements  that  a  foe  is 
near  but  continue  to  sing  their  measureless  love  in  an 
abandonment  of  ecstasy. 

Finally,  upon  their  unwilling  ears  is  borne  the  piercing 
cry  of  Brangaene,  as  King  Marke,  Melot  and  the  courtiers 
in  hunting  dress  enter'  swiftly  and  surprise  the  lovers  in 
their  embraces.  More  in  sorrow  and  shame  than  in  anger 
does  the  king  reproach  his  nephew  for  his  perfidy,  while 
the  guilty  Isolde  sits  motionless.  Tristan  offers  no  explana- 
tion but  calls  upon  Isolde  to  follow  him  to  death.  She 
makes  unfaltering  agreement,  which  is  sealed  with  a  kiss. 
At  this  Melot  rushes  upon  Tristan  with  drawn  sword  and 
stabs  him. 

In  the  third  act,  Tristan  is  found  at  his  castle  in 
Brittany,  hovering  near  death  and  nursed  by  his  devoted 
squire,  Kurvenal.     His  couch  is  placed  in  the  garden  which 


306  OPERAS 

commands  a  view  of  the  sea.  From  beyond  the  wall  is 
heard  a  shepherd's  pipe  playing  a  mournful  tune  which  is 
to  change  to  a  sprightly  melody  if  a  sail  becomes  visible, 
for  Kurvenal  hopes  for  the  coming  of  Isolde.  Sometimes 
the  wounded  man  rouses  to  make  faint  inquiry  and  some- 
times he  sinks  into  a  stupor  so  deep  that  the  faithful  hench- 
man has  to  listen  for  the  heart-beat  to  be  sure  that  his 
master  still  lives. 

At  last  the  shepherd's  notes  change  to  gladness  and 
Isolde  rushes  in.  Tristan  staggers  toward  her  uttering  her 
name  in  delirious  joy,  only  to  fall  dying  into  her  arms.  She 
does  not  realize  that  he  is  dead  and  tries  to  woo  him  to 
sensibility  but,  when  the  truth  comes  to  her,  she  reproaches 
him  gently  for  leaving  her  alone  and  falls  unconscious  beside 
him.  Now  the  shepherd  announces  that  a  second  ship  is 
coming.  It  bears  King  Marke  and  Melot.  Kurvenal, 
thinking  the  approach  means  enmity  towards  his  master, 
attacks  them  and  falls  mortally  wounded.  But  it  is  only 
to  forgive  that  the  King  has  come,  for  Brangaene  has  told 
him  the  story  of  the  love-potion.  Isolde  is  restored  to 
consciousness,  but  scarcely  listens  to  his  words  of  pardon 
and  chants  her  own  death-song  over  the  body  of  her  fallen 
hero. 

"  Tristan  and  Isolde "  marks  the  final  and  complete 
breaking  away  of  Wagner  from  all  conventions.  It  is  the 
first  opera  given  to  the  world  which  fully  represents  his 
theories  that  the  music,  verse  and  action  should  be  homo- 
geneous; that  the  orchestra  should  be  the  tonal  illustrator 
of  the  drama  and  the  commenter  on  the  emotions  and  situ- 
ations it  contained;  that  the  drama  should  be  esteemed  as 
of  paramount  importance  and  that  ensembles  should  be 
abolished  as  unnatural.  As  this  was  the  first  opera  of  the 
new  order  to  see  the  light  of  day,  the  wildest  of  controver- 
sies was  waged  about  it.  Battles  royal  were  fought  but 
today  "  Tristan  and  Isolde  "  is  generally  esteemed  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  the  musical  world  and  is  regarded  by  many 


TRISTAN  AND  ISOLDE  307 

enlightened     critics     as     holding     the     first     place     among 
Wagner's  works. 

The  Wagnerian  plan  of  "  endless  melody"  in  the 
orchestral  score  practically  precludes  having  any  clearly  and 
definitely  defined  numbers  in  the  work.  The  prelude  to 
"  Tristan  and  Isolde  "  is,  however,  a  selection  familiar  to  all 
patrons  of  orchestral  concerts  and  is  rightly  admired  by 
everyone  who  is  in  the  least  in  sympathy  with  modern 
music.  The  great  love  duet  in  the  second  act,  the  wonder- 
fully beautiful  "  Night  music  "  which  precedes  it,  the  long 
and  intensely  difficult  scene  for  Tristan  when  he  lies  suffer- 
ing and  partially  delirious  during  the  greater  portion  of  the 
third  act  and  the  magnificent  "  Love  Death  " —  Isolde's  fare- 
well and  greeting  to  her  dead  lover  —  with  which  the  noble 
work  ends,  are  supreme  moments  in  this  "  most  passionate 
of  love  operas." 


MIGNON 

"  Mignon  "  is  a  light  opera  in  three  acts  with  text  by 
Barbier  and  Carre,  based  upon  Goethe's  "  Wilhelm  Meister," 
and  with  music  by  Ambroise  Thomas.  It  was  first  pre- 
sented in  Paris  at  the  Opera  Comique  in  1866. 

CHARACTERS. 

Mignon,  daugher  of  Lothario,  stolen  by  gypsies. 

Wilhelm  Meister,  a  student. 

Lothario,   a   half   demented   old   man,   wandering   as  a 

minstrel. 
Filina,  a  young  actress. 
Laertes,  an  actor. 
Giarno,  chief  of  the  gypsies. 
Frederico,  lover  of  Filina. 

The  first  two  acts  of  Mignon  take  place  in  Germany, 
the  last  act  in  Italy.  The  story  opens  in  the  yard  of  an 
inn,  where  soon  all  the  leading  characters  assemble.  Here 
is  Lothario,  half  crazed  and  in  the  guise  of  a  minstrel,  but 
in  reality  in  search  of  his  daughter,  who  was  stolen  from 
him  when  a  little  girl.  Here,  too,  comes  Whilhem  Meister, 
a  wandering  student,  also  a  troupe  of  actors,  among  whom 
is  the  wilful  beauty  Filina,  and  a  band  of  gypsies,  of  whose 
number  is  Mignon.  The  little  waif.  In  their  travels  from 
town  to  town,  is  made  to  dance  in  the  streets  to  the  delight 
of  the  crowd.     She  is  sleeping  at  the  back  of  an  old  cart 


310  OPERAS 

on  a  sheaf  of  straw  but  is  soon  awakened  and  ordered  to 
dance  by  Giarno,  the  leader  of  the  band.  The  crowd  laughs 
to  see  the  sleepy,  slender  creature  in  her  rude  attire  but 
suddenly  she  shows  unwonted  spirit  and  refuses  to  do 
Giarno's  bidding.  He  is  about  to  lay  hands  upon  her  when 
Lothario  rushes  to  her  defense  and  would  be  worsted  but 
that  Wilhelm  rescues  both  him  and  the  girl,  ultimately 
purchasing  the  latter  from  her  cruel  master.  Mignon's 
gratitude  amounts  to  love  and  she  begs  to  be  allowed  to 
serve  Wilhelm.  Ignorant  of  the  passion  he  has  inspired, 
he  consents  to  her  acting  as  his  page  so  that  thus  she  may 
be  safe  to  satisfy  her  expressed  wish  to  be  near  him.  He, 
however,  has  become  infatuated  with  the  gay  Filina  and 
follows  in  the  wake  of  her  troupe.  His  admiration  flatters 
the  actress  and  she  practises  all  her  arts  upon  him.  At 
last,  Mignon's  jealousy  makes  her  so  miserable  that  she  is 
about  to  end  her  sorrow  in  the  lake  when  she  hears  the 
music  of  Lothario's  harp  and  rushes  to  him.  In  her  anger 
she  expresses  a  wish  that  the  castle  of  Rosenberg,  in  which 
Filina  is  playing  in  the  "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream," 
might  be  struck  by  lightning.  The  demented  Lothario, 
thinking  to  grant  this  wish  of  hers,  sets  fire  to  the  house. 
Unknown  to  him,  Mignon  is  in  the  building,  having  been 
ordered  by  Filina  to  fetch  some  flowers  that  had  been 
forgotten.  She  is  narrowly  saved  from  death  by  Wilhelm 
who,  at  the  risk  of  his  own  life,  carries  her  out  injured  and 
unconscious. 

The  last  act  is  placed  in  Italy.  Thither  the  ill  Mignon 
has  been  brought,  followed  by  Wilhelm.  Her  delirium  has 
revealed  to  him  the  love  she  feels  for  him  and  he  has  broken 
away  from  Filina.  Lothario,  now  no  longer  in  the  humble 
attire  of  a  minstrel,  receives  them  in  his  palace  which  he 
had  abandoned  after  the  loss  of  his  daughter.  He  shows 
Mignon  many  of  his  possessions  and  she  recognizes  certain 
jewels  that  she  had  worn  in  childhood.  Above  all,  she 
knows  the  portrait  of  her  mother  and  repeats  a  prayer 
taught   to   her    in   babyhood.      By   these    proofs,    Lothario 


MIGNON  311 

knows  her  to  be  his  daughter.  Filina  has  followed  them 
to  Italy  and  Mignon's  jealousy  momentarily  flares  up  again 
but  Wilhelm  proves  that  he  loves  her  alone  and  they  are 
united,  with  Lothario's  blessing. 

Thomas'  treatment  of  Mignon  is  ever  sensitive  and 
refined  and,  while  not  strikingly  original,  results  in  a  wealth 
of  graceful,  gentle  melody.  It  is  skilfully  framed  as  regards 
obtaining  the  best  stage  effects  and  the  composer  has  shown 
skill  and  facility  in  handling  the  orchestra.  The  opera  is 
one  of  the  most  popular  in  the  repertory  of  the  French 
operatic  stage  and  on  it  rests  Thomas'  claim  to  world-wide 
recognition  as  a  composer. 

Among  the  notable  numbers  are  Mignon's  famous  song, 
"  Non  conosci  il  bel  suol "  ("  Knowest  thou  that  fair 
land?  ")  and  the  "  Swallow  "  duet  of  Mignon  and  Lothario. 
In  the  second  act  occur  the  duet  of  Filina  and  Wilhelm, 
"  Gai  complimenti ;  "  Mignon's  song  at  the  mirror,  "  Conosco 
un  Zingarello;"  Wilhelm's  aria,  "  Addio,  Mignon!  fa  core!" 
possessing  wonderful  beauty  and  pathos;  the  duet  of 
Mignon  and  Lothario,  "  Sofferto  hai  tu  "  and  Filina's  dash- 
ing polacca,  "  lo  son  Titania."  In  the  third  act  occur  "Ah! 
non  credea,"  sung  by  Wilhelm,  and  the  love  duet,  "  Ah !  son 
felice,  son  rapita." 


LA  GRANDE  DUGHESSE  DE  GEROLSTEIN 

"  La  Grande  Duchesse  de  Gerolstein "  or  "  The  Grand 
Duchess  of  Gerolstein,"  is  an  opera  bouffe  in  three  acts,  the 
music  by  Jacques  Offenbach  and  the  words  by  Halevy  and 
Meilhac.  It  was  first  produced  at  the  Varietes,  Paris, 
April  12,  1867. 

CHARACTERS. 

The  Grand  Duchess. 

Fritz,  a  recruit. 

Prince  Paul,  a  discarded  suitor  of  the  Duchess. 

Baron  Puck. 

General  Boum,  in  command  of  the  army. 

Baron  Grog. 

Nepomuc,  an  aide-de-camp. 

Wanda,  a  country  girl. 

Iza,  1 

Olga     '       I   "^^*^^  ^^  honor  to  the  Grand  Duchess. 

Charlotte,  J  . 

Lords  and  ladies  of  the  court,  pages,  ushers,  soldiers, 

vivandieres  and  country  girls. 

The  story  is  laid  in  the  imaginary  duchy  of  Gerolstein, 
in  1720  The  Grand  Duchess,  who  has  been  brought  up  by 
her  tutor  and  prime  minister,  Baron  Puck,  to  have  her  own 
way,  is  a  charming  though  veritable  tyrant.  She  has  been 
betrothed  to  Prince  Paul  but  does  not  find  him  to  her  likmg 
and,  owing  to  her  being  in  an  unhappy  state  of  mmd  over 


314  OPERAS 

the  affair,  the  Baron  gets  up  a  war  to  amuse  her.  She 
decides  to  review  her  troops.  There  is  a  roll  of  drums  and 
the  cry  is  started  that  the  enemy  is  advancing  but  it  turns 
out  to  be  her  Highness. 

This  visit  proves  fatal,  for  she  falls  desperately  in  love 
with  the  handsome  soldier  Fritz,  whose  main  passions  in 
life  are  his  love  for  the  pretty  Wanda  and  his  hatred  of 
General  Boum,  The  Duchess  immediately  makes  Fritz  a 
corporal  and  as  she  grows  more  and  more  delighted  with 
him,  he  is  promoted  rapidly  to  sergeant,  lieutenant  and  cap- 
tain. Finally,  thoroughly  to  spite  the  General,  she  makes 
him  commander-in-chief  and  sends  him  to  conquer  the 
enemy.  This  he  easily  accomplishes  by  the  original  device 
of  making  the  whole  opposing  army  drunk,  his  artillery 
consisting  of  300,000  well-filled  bottles. 

When  he  returns,  crowned  with  victory,  the  delighted 
Duchess  finds  herself  more  than  ever  enamored  and  hints 
at  the  possibility  of  his  receiving  other  honors.  But  she 
finds  him  a  great  blockhead  in  the  matter,  for  he  shows 
that  he  prefers  his  Wanda  to  such  distinctions  and  incurs 
great  displeasure  by  asking  permission  to  marry  her  at  once. 

This  proves  the  death-blow  to  the  Duchess'  devotion 
and  she  gets  up  a  conspiracy  to  assassinate  the  victorious 
officer  on  his  return  from  the  wedding  ceremony.  When 
everything  is  ready  for  the  bloody  deed,  the  Duchess 
changes  her  mind,  which  is  now  busied  with  a  new  affair 
with  the  Baron  Grog.  Her  heart-history  bids  fair  ever  to 
be  ill-starred,  however,  for  this  latest  romance  is  blighted 
by  the  news  that  her  beloved  has  a  wife  and  four  children. 
She  becomes  philosophic  and  decides  to  marry  Prince  Paul 
after  all.  To  quote  her  own  words,  "  What  can  one  do  ?  If 
you  can't  have  those  you  could  love,  you  must  try  to  love 
those  you  can  have." 

In  place  of  assassinating  Fritz,  she  devises  the  lesser 
punishment  of  noisy  serenades  and  hurries  him  off  on  a 
false  alarm  to  fight  the  enemy.  The  enemy  proves  to  be  a 
jealous   husband   who   mistakes   him   for   another   man   and 


LA  GRANDE  DUCHESSE  DE  GEROLSTEIN  315 

gives  him  a  caning.  Bourn  is  made  happy  by  the  restora- 
tion of  his  plume,  his  emblem  of  military  distinction,  Puck 
is  reinstated  in  the  favor  from  which  he  had  fallen.  Grog 
is  sent  home  safe  to  his  family  and  Prince  Paul  is  received 
again  as  a  prospective  bridegroom. 

"  The  Grand  Duchess  "  is  a  notably  excellent  type  of 
the  opera  bouffe.  Among  the  numbers  worthy  of  mention 
are  General  Boum's  "Pif!  Paf!  Pouf!"  song;  the  Duchess' 
"Ah!  que  j'aime  les  militaires  "  (  "Ah  how  I  love  the  mili- 
tary"); the  duet  for  Fritz  and  the  Grand  Duchess,  "Ah, 
c'est  un  fameux  regiment"  ("Ah  this  a  famous 
regiment ")  ;  Prince  Paul's  reading  from  the  Dutch  Gazette, 
"Pour  epouser  une  princesse  "  ("To  take  as  bride  a  prin- 
cess"); the  sabre  song  of  the  Grand  Duchess;  the  rondo 
of  Fritz,  describing  his  exploits;  the  declaration  of  the 
Duchess,  "Dites  Lui "  ("Say  to  him");  Boum's  ballad, 
"Max  etait  soldat  de  Fortune"  ("Max  was  a  soldier  of 
fortune");  the  wedding  chorus;  the  song  of  the  Duchess. 
"Legende  du  verre  "  ("Legend  of  the  glass")  and  Fritz's 
complaint,  "Eh  bein,  Altesse,  me  voila "  ("Ah  well,  your 
grace,  I'm  here  "). 


ROMEO  AND  JULIET 

"  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  an  opera  in  five  acts  with  words 
by  Barbier  and  Carre  after  Shakespeare's  drama  and  music 
by  Charles  Gounod,  had  its  first  presentation  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  Paris,  April  27,  1867. 

CHARACTERS. 

The  Duke  of  Verona. 

Capulet. 

Tybalt,  nephew  to  Capulet 

Gregory. 

Paris. 

Romeo. 

Mercutio,    )     ,  .      ,       ,  „ 

Benvolio,    |    friends  of  Romeo. 

Stephano,  page  to  Romeo. 
Friar  Lawrence. 
Gertrude,   the  nurse. 
Juliet,  daughter  of  Capulet. 

Ladies  and  nobles  of  Verona,  citizens,  soldiers,  monks, 
pages,  and  retainers  of  both  houses. 

The  opera  opens  in  the  palace  of  the  Capulets,  where  a 
masked  ball  is  in  progress.  Romeo,  of  the  rival  house  of 
Montague,  comes  disguised  as  a  pilgrim  and  he  and  Juliet 
at  once  fall  in  love.  There  are  two  unfortunate  circum- 
stances to  be  considered  in  connection  with  this  occurrence, 


318  OPERAS 

for  they  are  scions  of  houses  between  which  a  deadly  enmity 
exists  and  Juliet  is  already  betrothed  to  Paris.  Juliet's 
kinsman,  Tybalt,  recognizes  Romeo  and  reveals  his  identity, 
vowing  vengeance  on  the  youth  for  his  intrusion  but 
Capulet  himself,  in  the  true  spirit  of  hospitality  lets  the 
incident  pass  and  the  act  ends,  as  it  began,  with  dance  and 
song. 

The  famous  balcony  scene  which  follows,  is  taken 
almost  intact  from  Shakespeare  and  forms  the  second  act. 
In  the  third  act,  the  clandestine  marriage  of  Romeo  and 
Juliet  is  consummated  in  the  Friar's  cell,  the  holy  man 
hoping  that  by  the  union  the  feud  may  be  terminated. 
Romeo's  page,  Stephano,  who  does  not  figure  in  the  Shake- 
sperian  text,  is  discovered  searching  for  his  missing  master 
near  Capulet's  door  in  Verona.  A  boyish  bit  of  arrogance 
on  his  part  provokes  the  servants  of  the  house  to  draw  upon 
him  and  shortly  thereafter  Romeo  and  his  friend  Mercutio 
meet  Tybalt  and  the  Capulets  in  the  street  and  the  quarrel 
becomes  general.  The  outcome  is  that  Mercutio  is  slain  and 
Romeo  avenges  him  by  killing  Tybalt. 

In  the  fourth  act,  Romeo  visits  Juliet  in  her  chamber 
and  departs  just  as  her  father  comes  in  to  remind  her  of 
her  approaching  marriage  to  Paris.  While  the  guests 
assemble  for  the  nuptials,  Juliet  seeks  the  Friar  again  for 
advice.  He  gives  her  a  sleeping-potion  which  will  render 
her  unconscious  and  will  lead  her  friends  to  think  she  is 
dead.  She  is  to  be  carried  in  this  condition  to  the  tomb 
of  the  Capulets  and  is  to  be  waked  when  Romeo  comes  to 
take  her  away.  Thence  in  the  fifth  act  comes  Romeo,  think- 
ing his  sweetheart  dead.  He  has  taken  poison  in  his  grief 
and  Juliet  is  revived  only  to  find  him  beyond  mortal  aid. 
She  stabs  herself  and  dies  in  his  arms. 

"  Romeo  and  Juliet "  is  regarded  as  inferior  in  musical 
interest  and  merit  to  "  Faust "  but  none  the  less  contains 
several  numbers  of  undeniable  beauty.  Acknowledged  to  be 
of  worth  are  Mercutio's  "  Queen  Mab  "  aria ;  Juliet's  waltz 
song  at  the  ball ;  the  duet  of  Romeo  and  Juliet,  "  I  pray 


ROMEO  AND  JULIET  319 

thee  go  not  yet ;  "  the  amorous  music  of  the  balcony  scene, 
(reminiscent  of  the  garden  scene  in  Faust),  a  notable  pas- 
sage being  Juliet's  song  beginning  "  Thou  knowest  the 
mask  of  night  is  on  my  face;  "  the  solo  of  Friar  Lawrence, 
"  Oh !  Smile,  fair  heaven,  upon  this  marriage ;  "  the  page's 
song  in  the  third  act;  the  duet  of  parting  in  the  fourth  act, 
"No,  love,  it  is  not  day;"  the  Friar's  solo  as  he  gives  the 
potion  to  Juliet  and  the  orchestral  prelude  to  the  tomb  scene. 


MEFISTOFELE 

"  Mefistofele "  or  "  Mephistopheles,"  a  grand  opera  in 
four  acts  with  prologue  and  epilogue,  both  text  and  music 
by  Arrigo  Boito,  was  first  presented  at  La  Scala,  Milan,  in 
1868.  It  is  a  paraphrase  of  both  parts  of  Goethe's  Faust, 
with  additional  episodes  taken  from  the  treatment  of  the 
legend  by  other  authorities. 

CHARACTERS. 
Part  I. 

Mephistopheles. 

Faust. 

Margaret. 

Martha. 

Wagner. 

Part  II. 
Helen. 
Faust. 

Mephistopheles. 
Pantalis. 
Nereus. 

The  prologue  takes  place  in  heaven  where  the  mystic 
choir  is  heard  and  Mephistopheles  appears  and  promises  to 
conquer  the  soul  of  Faust.  There  is  a  chorus  of  cherubim 
and  final  psalmody  of  the  penitents  on  earth. 

The  first  act  opens  in  the  public  square  at  Frankfort, 
where    the    students    and    peasants    are    celebrating    Easter. 


322  OPERAS 

Here  Faust  and  Wagner  meet  Mephistopheles  in  the  gfuise 
of  a  friar.  The  gray-clad  figure  follows  Faust  as  he  strolls 
home  at  the  close  of  the  day  and  tracks  him  to  his  labora- 
tory, where  it  conceals  itself.  Faust  begins  to  read  in  his 
Bible  and  this  brings  the  fiend  forth  in  horror.  He  has 
suddenly  assumed  the  garb  of  a  knight  with  a  black  cloak 
on  his  arm.  He  discloses  his  nature  and  the  object  of  his 
visit  and  the  interview  is  concluded  with  the  signing  of  the 
Devil's  contract  by  Faust.  The  fiend  previously  has  made 
plain  all  the  conditions.  He  will  be  Faust's  slave  on  earth 
but  in  the  hereafter,  their  parts  shall  be  changed.  Says  the 
unhappy  man,  "  The  other  life  never  troubles  my  thought. 
If  you  can  grant  me  but  a  brief  blessed  hour  wherein  to 
calm  all  yearning,  if  you  can  reveal  to  me  my  own  heart 
and  the  world's,  if  I  can  say  once,  once  to  the  flying 
moment ;  *  stay,  stay  for  thou  are  lovely,'  then  let  me  perish 
and  the  pit  may  engulf  me." 

They  are  borne  away  on  Mephistopheles'  magic  cloak 
to  Margaret's  garden,  where  Faust  makes  love  to  the 
maiden,  Mephistopheles  pretending  to  be  infatuated  with 
her  mother,  Martha.  The  second  scene  of  the  act  represents 
the  Witches'  Sabbath  on  the  Brocken,  where  the  evil  spirits 
are  making  merry.  Here  Mephistopheles,  their  king,  comes 
with  Faust  to  receive  their  homage.  Faust  is  granted  a 
vision  of  Margaret,  haggard  and  fettered,  and  resolves  to 
go  to  her  succor. 

The  third  act  is  laid  in  the  prison,  in  which  Margaret 
is  incarcerated  for  murdering  her  new-born  child  and  for 
giving  to  her  mother,  all  unwittingly,  a  sleeping-potion 
which  proved  to  be  a  deadly  draught.  She  sits  on  a  heap 
of  straw,  singing  wildly,  her  reason  half  gone.  Faust 
appears  and  begs  her  to  fly  with  him.  She  raves  in  her 
madness,  asking  him  why  his  lips  are  so  cold  and  telling 
him  the  order  of  the  graves  he  must  dig  on  the  morrow, 
the  third  to  be  for  herself.  But  Mephistopheles  urges  him 
away  just  as  the  dawn  appears.  As  it  paints  the  sky,  the 
soul  of  Margaret  is  released  and  receives  salvation. 


MEFISTOFELE  323 

In  the  fourth  act,  the  scene  changes  to  classical  Greece 
where  Mephistopheles,  true  to  his  promise  of  giving  him 
earthly  pleasure  in  return  for  his  services  in  hell,  allows 
Faust  to  make  love  to  Helen  of  Troy,  who  conducts  him 
to  her  bower.  In  the  epilogue,  the  grandeur  of  this  scene 
is  exchanged  for  the  familiar  laboratory  of  Faust  where  he 
reflects  on  the  hollowness  of  life  and  finds  solace  in  the 
thought  of  heaven,  Mephistopheles  is  again  at  his  side, 
urging  him  to  go  forth  in  the  world  with  him.  Heavenly 
music  comes  to  his  ears  and  gives  him  strength  to  resist. 
He  seizes  the  Bible  and  prays  for  help  from  above.  His 
prayers  are  heard  and,  as  he  dies,  a  shower  of  celestial 
blossoms  falls  upon  him  in  benediction. 

Boito  had  worked  for  a  number  of  years  on  this  opera 
with  the  intention  of  calling  it  "Faust,"  but  the  appearance 
in  Milan  of  Gounod's  "  Faust "  just  before  it  was  finished 
forced  the  disappointed  composer  to  change  the  name  to 
"  Mephistopheles,"  Later  judgment  terms  it  the  most 
original,  noble  and  stately  of  all  the  operas  founded  on 
Goethe's  poem  but  its  first  presentation  was  a  complete 
failure.  The  critics  at  once  applied  to  the  composer  the 
most  stinging  appellation  they  could  devise,  "  The  Italian 
Wagner."  Later  performances  proved  more  successful  and 
the  opera  now  holds  a  fairly  conspicuous  place  in  the  reper- 
tory of  the  opera  houses  of  Italy  and  France.  It  has  also 
been  given  in  Germany,  England  and  the  United  States. 

The  music  of  the  prologue  is  considered  one  of  the 
finest  portions  of  the  score,  its  finale  being  especially 
impressive.  Faust's  aria,  "  Dai  campi,  dai  prati  "  ("  From 
the  fields,  from  meadows")  is  one  of  the  lyric  moments 
in  the  first  act  and  leads  to  a  sonorous  proclamation  by 
Mephistopheles,  "Son  lo  spirito  "  ("I'm  the  spirit").  In 
the  "  garden  "  act,  the  quartet  of  Faust,  Margaret,  Mephis- 
topheles and  Martha  beginning,  "Addio,  f  uggo "  ("Fare- 
well, Away")  and  Mephistopheles'  song  over  the  globe  of 
glass,  "Ecco  il  mondo"  ("Here's  the  world")  form  the 
more  noticeable  numbers.    The  duet  of  Faust  and  Margaret 


324  OPERAS 

in  prison,  "  Lontano,  lontano  "  ("  Far  distant,  Far  distant  ") 
is  of  exceptional  beauty  and  is  surpassed  only  in  worth  and 
the  qualities  that  make  for  popularity  by  the  duet  of  Helen 
and  Pantalis  on  the  night  of  the  classical  Sabbath,  "  La  luna 
immobile"  ("The  changeless  queen  of  night"). 


[TONVANROOY. 


ANTON  VA 

r 

i 


As  Hans  Sachs  in  The  Meistersinger. 

A  native  of  Rotterdam,  this  distinguished  basso 
was  engaged  in  business  until  his  twenty-sixth  year. 
He  received  most  of  his  musical  instruction  from 
Stockhausen,  at  Frankfort.  His  first  public  appear- 
ances were  in  concert  and  he  gained  a  fine  reputation 
as  a  singer  of  lieder  and  oratorio.  In  1897,  he 
atttracted  the  attention  of  Frau  Wagner,  who  called 
him  to  Bayreuth.  There  his  great  parts  were  Amfor- 
tas  and  Wotan,  particularly  the  latter,  in  which  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself. 

The   next  year  he   sang   successfully   in   German 

opera   in   London  and  the  following  year,   1899,  in 

America.    In  New  York  he  was  a  member  of  Grau's 

opera  company  and  was  very  well  received.    He  has 

since  become  a  great  favorite  and  his  future  promises 

to  be  brilliant.       ^  o.^Kti 

a  pewtcrer. 

vugni^tns  MoscT,  a  t'jlor. 

>{erman  Orte!.  a  soap-boiler. 

iians  Schwartz,  a  stocking-vfv- 

Hans  Foltz,  a  coppersmith. 
Sir  Walter  Von  Stoking,  a  y< 
David,  apprentice  to  Hans  S»c: 
Eva,  Pogmer's  daughter. 
Magdalena,  Eva's  nurse. 


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Jftsillhd  sd  oJ 


DIE  MEISTERSINGER  VON  NURNBERG 

"  Die  Meistersinger  von  Niirnberg "  or  "  The  Master- 
singers    of    Nuremberg,"     Richard    Wagner's    only    comic 
opera,  was  presented  in  Munich,  Jui^e  21,   1868,  under  the 
direction  of  Hans  von  Biilow.     The  idea  of  the  opera  was 
suggested    to   the    composer    in    boyhood,    as    was    "  Tann- 
hauser,"  by  the  reading  of  one  of  Hoffmann's  novels  and 
was  planned  as  a  kind  of  "  Mastersinger  "  companion-piece  to 
the  **  Minnesinger  "  contest  in  "  Tannhauser."     The  sketch 
was  drawn  up  in  1845,  during  a  summer  holiday  but  soon 
was  set  aside  for  other  composition. 
CHARACTERS. 
Master  Singers: 
Hans  Sachs,  a  cobbler. 
Veit  Pogner,  a  goldsmith. 
Kunz  Vogelgesang,  a  furrier. 
Konrad  Nachtigal,  a  buckle-maker. 
Sixtus  Beckmesser,  a  town  clerk. 
Fritz  Kothner,  a  baker. 
Balthazar  Zorn,  a  pewterer. 
Ulrich  Eisslinger,  a  grocer. 
Augustus  Moser,  a  tailor. 
Herman  Ortel,  a  soap-boiler. 
Hans  Schwartz,  a  stocking-weaver. 
Hans  Foltz,  a  coppersmith. 
Sir  Walter  Von  Stolzing,  a  young  French  knight. 
David,  apprentice  to  Hans  Sachs. 
Eva,  Pogner's  daughter. 
Magdalena,  Eva's  nurse. 


326  OPERAS 

A  night-watchman. 

Burghers   of  all  guilds,  journeymen,  apprentices,  girls 
and  people. 

To  appreciate  this  opera  and  the  clever  satire  conveyed 
in  it,  one  must  have  some  knowledge  of  the  Mastersingers 
and  the  rules  that  hedged  them  about.  The  members  of 
the  guild,  who  were  burghers  instead  of  knights  like  the 
Minnesingers,  held  different  rank  according  to  their  pro- 
ficiency. When  a  certain  number  of  tunes  had  been 
mastered,  the  member  was  a  singer;  when  he  could  write 
verses  to  a  given  air,  he  had  developed  into  a  poet;  when 
he  could  set  his  poetry  to  music  of  his  own  invention,  he 
was  worthy  to  be  called  a  mastersinger.  There  were  no 
less  than  one  hundred  rules  which  composed  the  Tabular. 
Of  these,  thirty-three  were  concerning  errors  to  be  guarded 
against.  One  aspiring  to  membership  must  pass  an  exam- 
ination and,  if  the  chief  examiner  or  marker  chalked  up 
seven  mistakes,  the  candidate  failed  of  admission.  Frequent 
competitive  tests  with  prizes  were  held. 

The  scene  of  "  The  Mastersingers  "  is  laid  in  Nurem- 
berg in  the  Sixteenth  Century.  On  a  Sunday  afternoon  (St. 
John's  Day)  service  is  just  being  completed  in  St.  Cather- 
ine's church.  An  oblique  section  of  the  church  is  shown, 
the  last  pews  in  the  nave  being  visible.  The  good  townfolk 
are  there,  among  them  Eva,  the  fair  daughter  of  the  gold- 
smith and  mastersinger  Pogner,  accompanied  by  her  nurse 
and  companion,  Magdalena.  Standing  near  a  pillar  at  some 
distance  from  the  worshipers  is  Walter  von  Stolzing,  a 
young  Franconian  knight,  who  is  intently  watching  the 
charming  girl  as  she  takes  part  in  the  hymn  which  is  being 
sung.  Eva  is  not  unconscious  of  his  gaze,  for  she  turns 
repeatedly  to  give  him  a  glance  of  encouragement.  The 
hymn  is  ended  and  the  people  rise  from  their  seats  and  start 
homeward.  As  Eva  and  Magdalena  pass  Walter,  he 
addresses  the  young  girl  and  she,  eager  to  give  him  an 
opportunity  to  speak,  makes  the  excuse  of  having  left  her 
kerchief  and  her  pin  in  the  pew.     Magdalena  thus  is  com- 


DIE  MEISTERSINGER  VON  NtJRNBERG     327 

pelled  to  absent  herself  for  a  moment  and  Walter  seizes  the 
chance  to  question  Eva  as  to  whether  she  is  betrothed  or 
free.  Magdalena,  seeing  the  drift  of  affairs,  ends  by 
answering  his  question.  Eva  is  pledged  to  wed  but  she 
knows  not  to  whom.  The  morrow  shall  decide  that,  for  on 
that  day  the  mastersingers  are  to  hold  a  contest  and  to  the 
victor,  if  he  be  unmarried  and  Eva  be  not  opposed  to 
him,  her  hand  is  to  be  given.  Such  is  her  father's  wish  and 
promise.  Walter  knows  nothing  of  what  being  a  master- 
singer  means,  but  Eva's  assurance  that  she  will  choose  him 
"  or  else  no  one,"  fires  him  with  the  determination  to  become 
a  member  of  the  singers'  guild  and  thus  to  win  the  hand  of 
the  maiden  whom,  although  he  has  known  her  but  a  day, 
he  has  grown  to  love  passionately. 

Magdalena's  admirer  and  favored  suitor  is  David,  a 
young  apprentice  to  Hans  Sachs,  the  cobbler  of  the  town 
and  most  gifted  poet  among  the  mastersingers.  David  and 
his  fellow  apprentices  begin  preparing  the  church  for  hold- 
ing the  mastersingers'  meetings.  Magdalena  and  Eva  now 
entrust  Walter  to  David  for  instruction  and  directions  as 
to  what  he  must  sing  and  how  he  must  sing  it.  As  soon  as 
the  maiden  and  her  nurse  have  gone,  David  attempts  to 
keep  his  promise  and  to  give  Walter  some  idea  of  the 
requirements  for  entering  the  guild.  But  he  finds  the  young 
knight  wholly  ignorant  on  every  point  concerning  the 
matter  and,  after  rattling  off  a  long  list  of  titles  of  the 
diflferent  kinds  of  songs  and  citing  some  of  the  rules  govern- 
ing their  use,  he  gives  up  in  despair  and,  with  his  fellows 
awaits  the  sport  that  he  knows  will  come  from  the  appear- 
ing as  a  contestant  before  the  masters  of  such  an  unin- 
formed singer  as  Walter.  Pogner,  Eva's  father,  enters 
accompanied  by  Beckmesser,  the  town  clerk,  a  well  informed, 
somewhat  pompous  and  thoroughly  self-satisfied  old  bach- 
elor, who  long  has  been  a  suitor  for  Eva's  hand  and  who  is 
confident  that  tomorrow  will  see  him  the  victor.  He  is 
eager  that  a  word  in  his  favor  be  spoken  to  the  girl  and  this 
the  goldsmith  promises  to  do.     Walter  comes  forward  and 


328  OPERAS 

is  given  hearty  welcome  by  Pogner  at  whose  house  he  had 
been  a  guest  the  day  before.  One  by  one  the  master- 
singers  arrive  and  when  all  are  assembled  and  the  roll  has 
been  called,  Pogner  makes  an  address,  in  which  he  formally 
announces  his  decision  to  give  his  daughter's  hand  and 
dowry  to  the  man  who  wins  at  the  contest  on  the  morrow. 
The  question  is  raised  whether  it  is  right  thus  to  dispose 
of  a  young  girl's  heart,  and  Pogner  states  that  Eva  will  not 
be  asked  to  wed  the  winner  unless  she  loves  him.  Beck- 
messer  voices  a  fling  at  Hans  Sachs  that  perhaps  the  cobbler 
would  like  to  win  the  girl  but  Sachs  declares  that  they  both 
are  too  old  for  so  young  and  fair  a  maid  as  Eva.  This 
incenses  the  town  clerk  but  he  bides  his  time  to  get  even. 
Pogner  announces  Walter's  desire  to  sing  before  the 
mastersingers  and,  when  the  young  applicant  is  asked  where 
he  had  been  taught  to  sing,  he  declares  that  from  an  old 
book  which  his  sire  gave  him,  he  at  wintertide  beside  the 
hearth  read  of  spring  and  of  returning  summer  and  thus 
from  this  book  of  Walter  von  der  Vogelweide  he  has  learned 
his  singing.  The  masters  are  dubious,  all  save  Hans  Sachs, 
who  feels  that  possibly  the  young  fellow  may  possess  powers 
which  are  of  worth.  The  trial  song  is  at  hand  and  Beck- 
messer  is  appointed  "  marker."  He  enters  the  little  cur- 
tained enclosure  and  when  all  is  ready  he  gives  the  signal 
for  Walter  to  commence.  Walter  sings  but  it  is  a  rhapsody 
of  love  and  passion  for  the  maiden  he  loves  and  hopes  to 
win  —  a  song  far  removed  from  the  formal,  rule-bound  thing 
to  which  the  masters  are  accustomed.  Beckmesser's  mark- 
ing-board soon  is  covered  over  with  the  record  of  mistakes 
made  and  he  is  not  slow  to  show  his  dislike  of  the  singer 
whom  he  fears  is  favored  by  Eva.  Sachs  takes  exception 
to  Beckmesser's  attitude  and  thus  further  inflames  the  town 
clerk,  who  now  turns  and  twits  Sachs  with  neglecting  his 
cobbling  in  order  to  be  a  poet,  citing,  as  an  instance,  that  he 
has,  himself,  waited  for  days  for  a  pair  of  shoes  which 
Sachs  had  promised  to  finish  but  had  not  completed.  Sachs 
laughingly  assures  him  the  shoes  shall  be  ready  that  evening 


DIE  MEISTERSINGER  VON  NORNBERG     329 

and  the  mastersingers  break  up  their  meeting  in  something 
closely  resembling  a  row,  all  of  them  being  incensed  at 
Walter's  boldness  in  attempting  to  sing  before  them.  Only- 
Sachs  keeps  apart  from  the  general  indignation.  As  Walter 
rushes  away  and  as  the  mastersingers  and  apprentices  leave 
the  church,  Sachs  stands  looking  at  the  chair  the  young 
singer  had  occupied.  The  song,  although  new  and  appar- 
ently formless,  had  conveyed  to  him  something  of  strength 
and  worth.     He  walks  out  thoughtfully  as  the  curtain  falls. 

On  the  evening  of  the  same  day,  David  is  putting  up 
the  shutters  for  the  night  on  Hans  Sachs'  shop,  which 
stands  just  across  the  street  from  Pogner's  house.  Other 
apprentices  are  similarly  employed  near  by  and  are  singing 
happily,  when  Magdalena  appears  and  questions  David  as 
to  the  outcome  of  the  trial.  He  informs  her  that  the  young 
knight  was  "  outsung  and  outdone  "  and  she,  angered  at  the 
information,  refuses  to  give  him  the  goodies  she  had 
brought  him  in  her  basket  and  hurries  back  into  the  house. 
The  apprentices,  who  have  watched  this  meeting,  make  fun 
of  David  and  a  quarrel  is  imminent,  when  Sachs  appears 
and  orders  the  boy  into  the  shop  and  to  bed.  Sachs  himself 
enters  and  prepares  for  work.  Pogner  and  Eva  come  slowly 
up  the  street,  both  rather  thoughtful,  for  the  father  begins 
to  doubt  the  advisability  of  the  course  he  has  taken  in  prom- 
ising his  daughter's  hand,  while  the  girl  is  eager  to  know 
the  results  of  the  singing-test.  They  sit  down  for  a  few 
moments  in  an  arbor  beneath  a  lime-tree  in  front  of  the 
door  but  Magdalena  soon  appears  and  the  two  women 
speedily  manage  to  get  the  father  into  the  house.  Then 
the  nurse  tells  Eva  what  David  has  had  to  report  concern- 
ing Walter's  failure. 

Sachs  appears  at  the  door  of  his  shop  as  the  women  go 
into  their  house.  He  wishes  to  work  but  the  memory  of  the 
song  Walter  sung  still  lingers  in  his  mind  and  spirit.  He 
feels  its  power  yet  he  cannot  classify  or  analyze  it.  He 
knows  that  it  is  good  but  cannot  tell  why.  The  poet  in  him 
responds   to   the  utterance  of   genius,   strange   though   that 


330  OPERAS 

utterance  may  be.  Eva  comes  and  tries  by  skilful  question- 
ing to  learn  the  details  of  the  afternoon.  Sachs  quickly  sees 
the  trend  of  her  inquiries  and  teases  her  and  amuses  himself 
by  disparaging  Walter's  work  and  worth.  She  leaves  in 
anger,  going  to  Magdalena,  who  informs  her  that  Beck- 
messer  is  coming  that  evening  to  sing  as  a  serenade  before 
her  (Eva's)  window  the  song  he  is  to  use  in  the  contest 
tomorrow.  Eva  says  that  Magdalena  shall  sit  by  the  win- 
dow and  receive  the  serenader  when  he  arrives.  Just  then 
Walter  comes  down  the  street  and  Eva  runs  to  him  with 
frank  confession  of  her  love  for  him.  They  plan  to  elope 
but  the  night-watchman  passes  just  as  they  start  and  Sachs, 
who  from  the  partly  closed  window  of  his  shop  has  been 
noting  what  has  been  passing,  throws  wide  the  shutters  and 
floods  the  street  with  light  so  that  they  cannot  pass  without 
being  seen.  They  are  about  to  make  a  dash  for  it,  when 
Beckmesser  appears  and  begins  tuning  his  lute  prepara- 
tory for  his  serenade.  Sachs  commences  a  lusty  song  and 
a  vigorous  pounding  on  his  last  as  the  singing  starts  and, 
when  Beckmesser  pleads  with  him  to  be  silent,  he  replies 
that  as  the  honorable  town  clerk  complained  of  the  delay  in 
receiving  his  shoes  the  cobbler  must  of  necessity  work  at 
night  and  get  them  finished  for  the  morrow.  Beckmesser 
finally  agrees  to  Sachs'  proposal  that  while  the  serenade  is 
being  sung  he  shall  act  as  "  marker  "  and  by  driving  a  peg 
into  the  shoe  every  time  a  mistake  is  made  in  the  song,  they 
both  will  be  able  to  accomplish  what  they  wish  to  do. 
Beckmesser  begins  and  Sachs  indulges  in  such  frequent 
marking  of  errors  that  he  has  his  shoes  completed  before 
the  serenade  is  ended.  The  noise  rouses  the  neighbors  and, 
David  looking  out  of  his  lattice  window,  sees  Magdalena 
at  her  window,  receiving  Beckmesser's  serenade.  He 
quickly  descends  to  the  street  and  begins  to  belabor  the 
honorable  town  clerk.  Others  join  in  and  a  veritable  melee 
ensues.  Eva  and  Walter,  hidden  in  the  arbor,  attempt  to 
make  their  escape  in  the  confusion  but  Sachs  rushes  forward 
and,  pushing  the  half  fainting  girl  into  the  arms  of  Magda- 


DIE    MEISTERSINGER    VON    NORNBERG     331 

lena,  who  just  then  appears  at  the  door,  seizes  Walter  by 
the  arm  and  drags  him  into  the  shop.  The  night-watch- 
man's horn  is  heard  and  the  people  scurry  into  their  houses, 
leaving  the  sleepy  and  not  over-courageous  guardian  of  the 
night  to  announce  that  it  is  eleven  o'clock  and  that  all  is 
well. 

The  next  morning,  Sachs  sits  in  the  sunshine  in  his 
living-room,  reading  in  an  old  folio.  David  comes  and 
finds  him  so  engrossed  that  he  notices  nothing.  Finally, 
when  aroused,  the  master  has  his  'prentice  sing  the  song 
that  has  been  learned  for  the  day  and  then  bids  him  go 
prepare  for  the  festival.  Sachs  falls  to  meditating  on  the 
possible  reasons  and  causes  for  the  disturbance  of  the  night 
before,  but  can  reach  no  conclusion.  Suddenly,  Walter 
appears  at  the  door  of  the  room  wherein  he  has  slept  since 
midnight.  He  greets  Sachs  heartily  and  tells  him  that  he 
has  had  a  wonderful  dream.  He  is  asked  to  relate  it  and, 
as  he  does  so,  Sachs  writes  it  down,  skilfully  guiding  the 
recital  so  that  the  song,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  formally  satis- 
factory. It  is  not  completed,  however,  for  Walter's  inspira- 
tion seems  to  lag  and  both  he  and  Sachs  leave  to  dress  foi 
the  festival. 

Beckmesser  peeps  in  at  the  window,  then  slowly  enters 
and  peering  about  finally  discovers  on  the  table  the  manu- 
script of  the  poem  Sachs  just  has  noted  down.  He  con- 
cludes at  once  that  it  is  designed  for  the  contest  and  that 
the  cobbler-poet  will  use  it.  Sachs  surprises  him  as  he  is 
examining  it  and,  when  Beckmesser  suggests  that  it  is  to  be 
sung  at  the  contest,  Sachs  laughingly  presents  the  manu- 
script to  him  with  full  permission  to  use  it  as  he  may  see 
fit.  Beckmesser  is  delighted  and  now  is  sure  of  winning 
Eva's  hand.  He  has  scarcely  gone  when  Eva  comes,  ready 
for  the  festivities.  She  offers  as  an  excuse  that  one  of  her 
new  shoes  pinches  her  but  Sachs  quickly  sees  that  to  learn 
the  whereabouts  of  Walter  is  the  true  object  of  her  visit. 
Walter  appears  and  the  cobbler  suggests  that  a  little  music 
would   lighten  the  labor  of  correcting  the  shortcoming   m 


332  OPERAS 

Eva's  shoe.  The  enamored  young  knight  sings  to  his  love 
and  thus  adds  the  needed  third  part  to  the  dream-song. 
When  both  singing  and  shoe  are  simultaneously  finished, 
Sachs  hails  the  melody  and  poem  as  a  master-song  and 
declares  that  it  must  be  christened.  David  is  called  in  and 
Magdalena  arriving  at  the  same  time,  the  five  sing  about 
the  song  and  what  it  shall  accomplish  at  the  contest. 

The  scene  changes  and  on  the  banks  of  the  River 
Pegnitz,  outside  the  gates  of  Nuremberg,  the  folk  assemble 
for  the  festival.  The  various  guilds  arrive,  there  is  dancing 
and  jollification.  At  last  the  mastersingers  approach  with 
all  due  pomp  and  ceremony.  Hans  Sachs  is  hailed  by  the 
populace  and,  when  all  have  taken  their  places,  he  calls 
attention  to  the  prize  that  is  offered.  At  last  Beckmesser 
advances  to  sing  for  the  prize.  He  attempts  the  poem  that 
Sachs  gave  him  but  so  mixes  and  mangles  it  that  his 
hearers  soon  are  in  shouts  of  laughter  and  he  is  forced  to 
desist.  He  then  accuses  Sachs  of  having  written  it  and 
Sachs,  in  defense,  declares  that  the  poem  is  not  of  his  own 
fashioning,  that  the  song  is  beautiful  and  that  it  needs  but 
to  be  properly  given  in  order  to  prove  its  author  a  master- 
singer.  He  calls  for  some  one  to  sing  it  and  Walter 
advances.  The  melody  and  words  are  so  beautiful  that 
both  common  folk  and  masters  are  charmed  and  when  it  is 
ended  Eva  crowns  the  singer  with  laurel.  Pogner  will  place 
the  silver  chain  of  the  mastersinger  order  about  his  neck 
but  Walter  motions  him  away.  He  will  have  "  none  of  the 
masters."  Sachs,  however,  with  dignity  and  eloquence 
points  out  to  him  the  beauty  and  value  of  the  art  that  has 
given  such  a  prize  and,  as  Walter  accepts  the  chain,  Eva 
removes  the  laurel  wreath  from  her  lover's  head  and  with 
it  crowns  Sachs  himself,  the  people  acclaiming  him  as 
"  Nuremberg's  darling  Sachs." 

Musically  "  The  Mastersingers "  is  conceded  the  most 
beautiful  and  the  most  inspired  of  all  the  Wagner  operas. 
Its  prelude  is  a  master  work,  whether  viewed  in  the  light  of 
melodic  and  harmonic  beauty  or  as  a  wonder   in   contra- 


DIE  MEISTERSINGER  VON  NURNBERG     333 

puntal  writing.  The  three  great  songs  for  Walter,  "Am 
stillen  Heerd"  ("By  quiet  Hearth"),  in  which  he  tells  of 
his  having  first  learned  to  sing;  "  Fanget  an"  ("Now 
begin"),  with  which  he  tries  for  the  mastership,  and  the 
immortal  "  Prize  Song,"  which  he  composes  in  Sachs'  room 
and  which  he  sings  with  such  happy  results  at  the  contest, 
are  brilliant  refutations  of  the  charge  that  Wagner  could  not 
write  fluent,  beautiful  melody.  The  quintet,  sung  in  the 
last  act  at  the  "  christening  "  of  the  "  Prize  song,"  remains 
unsurpassed  by  anything  that  Wagner  or  any  of  his  prede- 
cessors have  achieved  along  the  line  of  effective  ensemble 
writing.  The  musing  of  Sachs  before  his  shop  and  his 
monologue  when  alone  in  his  room  are  of  supreme  interest 
and  loveliness.  The  address  of  Pogner  before  the  master- 
singers  is  of  the  finest  quality  and  the  entire  scene  of  the 
serenade  of  Beckmesser  shows  Wagner's  great  genius  as 
musician,  humorist  and  poet  in  the  most  brilliant  light. 


AIDA 

"Aida,"  a  romantic  grand  opera  in  four  acts,  with 
music  by  Giuseppe  Verdi,  and  with  text  translated  from  the 
French  of  Locle  by  Antonio  Ghislanzoni,  received  its  pre- 
mier performance  in  Cairo,  Dec.  24,  1871.  The  opera  was 
written  by  the  order  of  the  Khedive  of  Egypt. 

CHARACTERS. 

Aida,  a  Captive. 

Amneris,  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  King  of  Egypt 
Rhadames,  an  Egyptian  general. 
Amonasro,  King  of  Ethiopia. 
Ramphis,  High  Priest  of  Egypt. 
A  Messenger. 

Priests,  priestesses,  ministers,  captains,  soldiers,  func- 
tionaries, slaves  and  Ethiopian  prisoners. 

The  scene  of  the  opera  is  laid  in  Memphis  and  Thebes, 
In  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs.  Aida  is  the  daughter  of 
Amonasro  of  Ethiopia,  who  has  risen  unsuccessfully  against 
Pharaoh.  The  girl,  sharing  in  the  fortunes  of  war,  is  taken 
captive  by  the  Egyptians  and  is  given  as  a  slave  to  Pha- 
raoh's daughter,  Amneris.  Rhadames,  a  young  general,  is 
loved  by  both  Amneris  and  her  slave  and  the  latter  is 
secretly  loved  by  him. 

The  High  Priest,  Ramphis,  announces  the  approach  of 
the  Ethiopians  against  Thebes  and  Rhadames  is  chosen  to 


336  OPERAS 

march  against  them.  He  returns  in  triumph  with  their 
King,  Amonasro,  disguised  as  an  officer,  chained  to  his 
chariot-wheels.  It  may  be  added  that  he  is  ignorant  of  the 
fact  that  Aida  is  the  daughter  of  Amonasro.  The  suspi- 
cions of  Amneris  that  there  is  an  attachment  between  the 
general  and  her  slave  have  been  growing  and  during  his 
absence  she  has  devised  a  pretty  test.  She  announces  in 
the  presence  of  Aida  that  Rhadames  has  fallen  in  battle  and 
the  girl's  misery  is  sufficiently  evident  to  set  her  doubts  at 
rest. 

Pharaoh  is  so  pleased  with  the  military  prowess  of 
Rhadames  that  he  concludes  to  recompense  him  with  the 
hand  of  his  royal  daughter.  Naturally,  the  joy  of  Rhada- 
mes is  not  overgreat.  Meantime,  Aida  fearing  for  the  fate 
of  her  father,  whose  identity  is  not  known  at  the  Egyptian 
court,  pleads  that  the  captives  may  be  released.  Rhadames 
adds  his  prayers  to  hers.  Pharaoh  pardons  all  save 
Amonasro,  whom  he  retains  at  the  palace  and  thus  the 
father  and  daughter  are  brought  into  communication.  At 
Amonasro's  suggestion,  Aida  begs  from  her  lover  the  mili- 
tary plans  which  shall  lead  to  the  recovery  of  the  Ethiopian 
kingdom  and  the  liberty  of  its  ruler.  The  lovers  have  a 
secret  meeting  near  the  temple  of  Isis  and  Rhadames,  influ- 
enced by  Aida,  yields  the  plans  and  consents  to  fly  from 
Egypt  with  the  captive  King  and  his  daughter.  The  inter- 
view is  overheard,  however,  by  Amneris  and  the  High 
Priest  and  Rhadames  is  denounced  as  a  traitor.  Aida  and 
her  father  escape  but  Rhadames  is  tried  and  sentenced  to  be 
buried  alive  beneath  the  floor  of  the  temple  of  Phtah.  He 
is  oflfered  the  hand  of  Amneris  as  an  alternative  but  refuses 
to  accept  it.  When  he  descends  into  the  vault,  he  finds 
Aida  waiting  to  share  his  death.  The  priests  seal  their 
tomb  with  a  rock,  while  Amneris  kneels  in  prayer  above 
their  living  sepulchre,  her  jealousy  proving  stronger  than 
her  anguish  even  at  the  last. 

The  music  of  "Aida  "  possesses  marked  dramatic  power 
and  native  oriental  coloring  is  woven  into  its  texture,   the 


V 


AIDA  337 

effect  in  the  sacred  chants  and  dances  being  achieved  largely 
with  harp  and  flutes.  The  opera,  in  its  entirety,  is  stately 
and  majestic  in  conception,  brilliant  and  melodious  in  music 
and  serves  as  a  vehicle  for  unbounded  stage  display. 

Among  the  principal  numbers  are  the  overture; 
Rhadames'  song,  "Celeste  Aida "  ("  Heav'nly  Aida"); 
Aida's  lament,  "  Ritoma  vincitor"  ("May  laurels  crown 
thy  brow")  ;  the  hymn  of  the  high  priestesses  to  Phtah;  the 
quintet,  "Gloria  all'  Egitto "  ("Glory  to  Isis");  Aida's 
song,  "O!  cieli  azzurri  "  ("O!  skies  of  blue")  and,  in  the 
third  act,  two  great  duets  between  Amonasro  and  Aida  and 
Rhadames  and  Aida. 


LA  FILLE  DE  MADAME  ANGOT 

"  La  Fille  de  Madame  Angot "  or  "  Madame  Angot's 
Daughter,"  an  opera  bouffe  in  three  acts,  the  words  by 
Clairville,  Siraudin  and  Koning  and  the  music  by  Charles 
Lecocq,  was  first  presented  at  the  Fantaisies  Parisiennes, 
Brussels,  in  November,  1872. 

CHARACTERS. 

Mademoiselle  Lange,  an  actress,  favorite  of  Barras. 
Clairette  Angot,  betrothed  to  Pomponnet. 
Larivaudiere,   friend  of  Barras  and  conspiring  against 

the  Republic. 
Pomponnet,  barber  of  the  market  and  hair-dresser  of 

Mile.  Lange. 

Ange  Pitou,  a  Poet  in  love  with  Clairette. 

Louchard,  police  officer  at  the  orders  of  Larivaudiere 

Amarante,    )         ,    ^ 

T       ^^  J-  market-women. 

Javotte,        j 

Hersillie,  a  servant  of  Mile.  Lange. 

Trenitz,  a  dandy  of  the  period,  officer  of  the  Hussars. 

Babet,  Clairette's  servant. 

Cadet,  -\ 

Guillaume,   C  market-men. 

Buteaux,      J 

The  scene  of  the  opera  is  laid  in  France  just  after  the 
revolution   of    1793.     The   directorate   has   been   established 


340  OPERAS 

and  Barras  is  at  its  head.  The  characters  are  semi-histori- 
cal. The  heroine  is  a  charming  flower-girl  called  Clairette, 
daughter  of  the  famous  Madame  Angot,  who  has  been 
educated  better  than  most  of  her  associates  and  has  been 
adopted  as  "  Child  of  the  Market."  A  marriage  with  Pom- 
ponnet,  a  hair-dresser,  has  been  arranged  for  her  against 
her  will,  for  she  is  in  love  with  Ange  Pitou,  a  satirist  and 
writer  of  political  songs,  who  is  continually  getting  into 
trouble  on  account  of  his  revolutionary  effusions.  His  latest 
composition  has  been  in  disclosure  of  the  relations  between 
Mile.  Lange,  the  actress  and  the  favorite  of  Barras,  and  one 
Larivaudiere.  The  latter  has  bought  him  off.  Clairette  gets 
possession  of  the  song  and,  to  avoid  her  marriage  with  Pom- 
ponnet,  sings  it  publicly  and  is,  as  she  expects,  arrested  and 
her  wedding  unavoidably  postponed.  Mile.  Lange  summons 
the  girl  to  her  to  learn  the  reason  of  her  attack  and  is 
surprised  to  recognize  in  her  an  old  schoolmate.  Pomponnet 
loudly  protests  her  innocence  and  says  that  Ange  Pitou  is 
the  author  of  the  verses.  Mile.  Lange  already  knows  of 
this  Ange  Pitou  and  is  not  unmindful  of  his  charms.  He 
has  been  invited  to  her  presence  and  comes  while  Clairette 
is  present  and  the  interview  is  marked  with  more  than 
cordiality.  The  jealous  Larivaudiere  appears  meantime  and, 
to  clear  herself.  Mile.  Lange  declares  that  Ange  Pitou  and 
Clairette  are  lovers  and  have  come  to  the  house  to  join  in  a 
meeting  of  conspirators  to  be  held  at  midnight.  The  con- 
spirators arrive  in  due  time,  but  in  the  midst  of  proceedings, 
the  house  is  surrounded  by  Hussars;  the  crafty  Lange  hides 
the  badges  of  the  conspirators,  "  collars  black  and  tawny 
wigs,"  and  the  affair  takes  on  the  appearance  of  nothing 
more  dangerous  than  a  ball.  The  Hussars  join  gaily  in  the 
dance  but  before  the  impromptu  function  is  ended,  Clairette 
and  Mile.  Lange  make  the  discovery  that  they  both  are 
fond  of  the  poet.  Clairette  schemes  to  ascertain  whether 
the  other  is  playing  her  false  and  succeeds  also  in  proving 
to  herself  that  Ange  Pitou  is  untrue.     The  actress  and  the 


LA  FILLE  DE  MADAME  ANGOT  341 

poet   receive   public   disapproval   and   Clairette   consents   to 
marry  the  faithful  Pomponnet. 

The  music  is  of  so  graceful  and  melodious  character 
as  to  make  "  La  Fille  de  Mme.  Angot "  one  of  the  most 
beloved  light  operas  France  has  ever  known.  It  also  won 
great  popularity  throughout  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
Among  the  prominent  numbers  are  Clairette's  romance,  "Je 
vous  dois  tout "  ("I  owe  you  all ")  ;  Amaranthe's  song, 
"  Marchande  de  Maree  "  ("A  beautiful  fisherwoman  " )  ; 
Ange  Pitou's  plaint,  "  Certainement  j'aime"  (" 'Tis  true  I 
love  ")  ;  the  political  "  chanson  "  which  causes  the  arrest  of 
Clairette,  "Jadis,  les  rois,  race  proscrite  "  ("Once  kings,  a 
race  proscribed  ")  ;  Pomponnet's  "  Elle  est  tellement  inno- 
cente"  ("She  is  so  innocent");  the  duet  of  Clairette  and 
Mademoiselle  Lange,  "Jours  fortunes"  ("Happy  Days"); 
the  conspirators'  chorus,  "  Quand  on  conspire "  ("  When 
one  conspires  ")  ;  Clairette's  songs,  "  Vous  aviez  fait  de  la 
depense"  ("You  put  yourselves  to  great  expense")  and 
"Ah!  c'est  vous,  Madame  Barras "  ("Ah!  'tis  you  then, 
Madame  Barras"). 


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